The Road to the First Belarusian State: Nation-Building in the Context of the First World War and Revolution by Lizaveta Kasmach A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History Department of History and Classics University of Alberta © Lizaveta Kasmach, 2016 Abstract This dissertation contributes to the study of the First World War in East Central Europe, providing an insight into the profound political, demographic, social, and cultural changes introduced by the Great War and deepened by the Revolution. Focusing on the Belarusian nation-building process in the early 20th century, this study treats the First World War as an important divide in the national politics of the Polish-Lithuanian-Belarusian borderlands. Rather than emphasizing the framework of the “rise of nationalism,” Belarusian nation- building is analyzed with regard to the recent methodological trends of approaching the First World War as a mobilizational moment for stateless nations, demonstrating the ways in which the Great War catalyzed the growth of ethnic particularism in the region. With a broad comparative perspective on the entangled histories of the nation-building activities of Belarusian, Lithuanian, and Polish national movements, this dissertation addresses the problem of supporting and promoting national identity formation in a borderland region, where powers were changing frequently and people were maneuvering in their survival tactics. This study thus deals with the processes of overcoming indifference and creating allegiance to the new project of the Belarusian nation, uncovering the problematic roots of the Belarusian national identity and persisting patterns of national indifference and passivity, which still remain defining characteristics for contemporary Belarusian society. ii Preface This dissertation is an original work of Lizaveta Kasmach. Parts of Chapter 5 are accepted for publication entitled “Forgotten Occupation: Germans and Belarusians in the Lands of Ober Ost (1915 – 1917),” forthcoming in Canadian Slavonic Papers/Revue Canadienne Des Slavistes in 2016. iii Acknowledgements When I decided to move to another continent to continue my studies in Canada five years ago, I could not foresee what challenges and hurdles would await me on this academic journey. It would not have been possible without the help and support of a number of people all over the world, whom I would like to thank here. I am very grateful to my supervisor, Professor David Marples, for agreeing to work with me in the somewhat exotic field of Belarusian history, and for giving me the freedom to develop my research interests. I benefited a great deal from his expertise and insights, and I am thankful for his optimistic encouragement, inspiring attitude, and extensive feedback on my work throughout these years. I greatly appreciate the support of my supervisory committee. Professor John- Paul Himka helped me to become more outspoken and confident in discussions, giving me faith in my abilities and the path I chose as a historian. Professor Dennis Sweeney expanded my horizons beyond the small region of East-Central Europe, reminding me to keep in mind the bigger picture. The Department of History and Classics at the University of Alberta provided a stimulating environment for my professional and intellectual growth. In particular, I am thankful to Professor Heather Coleman for her valuable advice and comments, as well as the collegial atmosphere of the Eastern Europeanists' Circle, where I could present and discuss some of my work. I have benefited from a number of awards and scholarships, which facilitated my research activities in archives in Belarus and Lithuania, and gave me valuable time for writing. These include the University of Alberta Doctoral Recruitment Scholarship, the Frank W. Peers Graduate Research Scholarship, the Clifford H. Skitch Travel Award, the iv David R. Marples Eastern European Travel Award, and the Mary Louise Imrie Graduate Student Award. Further, I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor David Marples, and the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research for offering me a research assistantship appointment in the final year of my program. I was lucky to have people in my life, who stood by my side during this major academic and personal journey. Michał Młynarz offered me inspiration, motivation, and support, taking the time to show me the best sides of Canada. Alyssa Ilich has not only been the perfect roommate, but also a constant source of encouragement, always helping me out with linguistic issues. The entire Yelich family made me realize that the warmth in people's hearts outweighs all the downsides of living in a cold climate. I am also immensely grateful to my friends, who brought joy and fun into my life during these years: Oksana Vynnyk, Larysa Bilous, Meagan Fairholm, Yulia Volyanskaya, Iryna and Elinor Bajraktari, Iuliia Kysla, Meaghan Walker, Siarhej Smatrychenka, Margarita Kolesnikova, Inna Poletaeva, and Nicola Sciarrone. I am blessed with a wonderful family: my parents, Tatsiana and Siarhej Kasmach, my aunt Tatsiana, my sister Katsiaryna, her husband Siarhej, and little Miraslaŭ. I would not have been able to complete this project without them and many other relatives and friends, who had offered their support, as I lost several people dear to me in these years. I dedicate this work to the memory of my grandmothers, Halina Kalachyk and Maryja Kasmach, who always encouraged my curiosity and independence. v Table of Contents Introduction / 1 Chapter 1 The First World War on Belarusian Territories / 29 Chapter 2 The Political Organization of the Belarusian Movement in Non-Occupied Territories in 1917 / 56 Chapter 3 Between Local and National: the Case of Eastern Belarus in 1917 / 101 Chapter 4 The First All-Belarusian Congress / 154 Chapter 5 Teile und Herrsche: Belarusians, Lithuanians, and Poles in the Lands of Ober Ost (1915 – 1917) / 220 Chapter 6 “Common” Homeland of the Grand Duchy: National Politics in Ober Ost / 278 Chapter 7 Belarusian Statehood in the Making: BNR and Soviet Belarus / 333 Concluding Remarks / 392 Bibliography / 397 Appendix / 417 vi List of Figures Figure 1: Belarusian Territories during the First World War Figure 2: Nationalities of Ober Ost Figure 3: Belarusian Ethnographic Borders Figure 4: Belarusian Democratic Republic (BNR) in 1918 Figure 5: German Occupation of Eastern Europe in 1918 vii Abbreviations Bielnackam Bielaruski Nacyjanal'ny Kamisaryjat (Belarusian National Commissariat) BNK Bielaruski Nacyjanal'ny Kamitet (Belarusian National Committee) BNPS Bielaruskaja Narodnaja Partyja Sacyjalistaŭ (Belarusian People's Party of Socialists) BNR Bielaruskaja Narodnaja Respublika (Belarusian Democratic Republic) BOK Belorusskii Oblastnoi Komitet (Belarusian Oblast' Committee) BPSF Bielaruskaja Partyja Sacyjalistaŭ-Federalistaŭ (Belarusian Party of the Socialists-Federalists) BPSR Bielaruskaja Partyja Sacyjalistaŭ-Revalucyjaneraŭ (Belarusian Party of the Socialist-Revolutionaries) BRH Bielaruskaja Revaliucyjnaja Hramada (Belarusian Revolutionary Hramada) BRP Bielaruskaja Revaliucyjnaja Partyja (Belarusian Revolutionary Party) BSDP Bielaruskaja Sacyjal-Demakratyčnaja Partyja (Belarusian Social- Democratic Party) BSDRP Bielaruskaja Sacyjal-Demakratyčnaja Rabočaja Partyja (Belarusian Social-Democratic Workers' Party) BSH Bielaruskaja Sacyjalistyčnaja Hramada (Belarusian Socialist Hramada) BSSR Bielaruskaja Saveckaja Sacyjalistyčnaja Respublika (Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic) CBVR Central'naja Bielaruskaja Vajskovaja Rada (Central Belarusian Military Rada) GDL Grand Duchy of Lithuania Narkomnats Narodnyi Komissariat po Delam Natsionalnostei (People's Commissariat for Nationality Affairs) Ober Ost Oberbefehlshaber Ost (German Supreme Command in the East) Obliskomzap Oblastnoi Ispolnitel'nyi Komitet Sovetov Rabochikh, Soldatskikh i Krest'ianskikh Deputatov Zapadnoj Oblasti i Fronta (Oblast' Executive Committee of the Soviets of Workers', Soldiers', and Peasants' Deputies of the Western Oblast' and Front) Oblastiskomzap Oblastnoi Ispolnitel'nyi Komitet Zapadnoi oblasti (Oblast' Executive Committee of the Western oblast’) P.O.W. Polska Organizacja Wojskowa (Polish Military Organization) PPS Polska Partia Socjalistyczna (Polish Socialist Party) RKP(b) Rossiiskaia Kommunisticheskaia Partiia (bolshevikov) (Russian viii Communist Party (Bolsheviks) RSDRP Rossiiskaya Sotsial-Demokraticheskaia Rabochaia Partiia (Russian Social Democratic Labour Party) RSFSR Rossiiskaya Sovetskaia Federativnaia Sotsialisticheskaia Respublika (Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic) SDKPiL Socjaldemokracja Królestwa Polskiego i Litwy (Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania) SSRB Savieckaja Sacyjalistyčnaja Respublika Bielarus' (Soviet Socialist Republic of Belarus) Sovnarkom Sovet Narodnykh Komissarov (Council of the People's Commissars) SVU Soiuz Vyzvolennia Ukraïny (Union for the Liberation of Ukraine) TsB KP(b)B Tsentral’noe Biuro Kommunisticheskoi Partii Belorussii (Central Bureau of the Communist Party of Belarus) TsK RKP(b) Tsentralnyi Komitet Rossiiskoi Kommunisticheskoi Partii (bolshevikov) (Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) VBR Vialikaja Bielaruskaja Rada (Great Belarusian Rada) ix Introduction “Narod tol'ki tady isnue, kali mae svaih herojaŭ” Barys Kit1 This dissertation deals with imperial decline and the rise of the nation-state concept in the early