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ProQuest Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0600 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. MILITARY CULTURE AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION: A CASE STUDY OF THE RWANDAN DEFENCE FORCES by Robin Camken A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Political Science Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Copyright © 2005 Robin Camken All Rights Reserved Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 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ABSTRACT When the army was formed in 1960, military culture in Rwanda was corrupted by colonial policy, ethnic bias, and elitism. Under the First and Second Republics, the military was moulded on an ideology of regionalism, racism, and hostility towards the Tutsi population. After the Genocide in 1994, the Rwandan government introduced a deliberate program to create a new national army by promoting an inclusive ideology, advancing professionalism, and improving civil-military relations. The goal was to make the military an institution that decreased ethnic tensions and built public confidence. This study examined the evolution of military culture in the Rwandan army from the colonial period to the present. The research found that military culture can be changed to reduce conflict, increase security, and contribute to conflict resolution. ii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................ ii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS........................................................................................... v LIST OF TABLES.............................................................................................................. vi LIST OF APPENDICES................................................................................................... vii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.......................................................................................... viii GLOSSARY............................................................................................................................. ix CHAPTER PAGE INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................... 1 The Study of Militaries in Africa ................................. 2 Conflict and Conflict Resolution .................................. 4 Military Culture .............................................................. 7 Gaps in the Literature .................................................... 9 Research Questions ....................................................... 10 Hypotheses...................................................................... 10 Why Rwanda as a Case Study? .................................... 11 Methodology................................................................... 13 Chapter Overview........................................................... 15 1. THE RWANDAN ARMY DURING THE PRE-COLONIAL AND 21 COLONIAL PERIODS Ethnic History.................................................................. 22 Formation of the State .................................................... 23 Pre-colonial Rwandan Army ......................................... 24 Military Culture in the Pre-colonial Army .................. 29 Colonial Influence on Ethnic Identity .......................... 29 Rwandan Army in the Colonial Period ......................... 33 The 1959 Rwandan Revolution ..................................... 37 Summary........................................................................... 43 2. FORCES ARMEES RWANDAISES (FAR) - THE RWANDAN ARMY 49 FROM INDEPENDENCE TO GENOCIDE Politics Under the Transition to Independence 49 The First Republic ........................................................... 50 Garde Terriotiale - Garde Nationale du Rwanda 51 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Tutsi Rebel Attacks ........................................................ 52 The 1973 Coup ............................................................... 54 Second Republic ............................................................. 57 Forces Armees Rwandaises ........................................... 59 1990 Civil War Begins................................................... 60 Rapid Expansion of FAR 1990-1993 ........................... 62 The Interahamwe Militia ................................................ 63 1993 RPF Offensive ....................................................... 63 Significance of the Arusha Accord ............................... 65 1994 Genocide Begins .................................................... 66 FAR Resistance to the Genocide ................................... 67 FAR Retreat..................................................................... 68 Rwandan Hutu Insurgency ............................................ 69 FDLR Ideology............................................................... 72 Conclusions ...................................................................... 73 3. THE RWANDAN PATRIOTIC ARMY 80 Seeds of the Refugee Revolution .................................. 80 From the Rwandan Alliance for National Unity to the Rwandan Patriotic Front ................................................ 82 Ideology and Code of Conduct ...................................... 83 Personnel Profile ............................................................. 84 Tactics and Strategy........................................................ 85 Civil-Military Relations.................................................. 89 Conclusions ...................................................................... 93 4. THE RWANDA DEFENCE FORCES 97 Integration of Forces Process ......................................... 99 Demobilization, Disarmament, and Reintegration 103 Paying the Troops........................................................... 108 Reorganisation of Security Forces ................................ 110 Local Defence Forces ..................................................... I l l Professionalization .......................................................... I l l Taking the Military Out of Politics..............................