FROM PICKET LINES TO PICKET FENCES: LATINAS AND THE REMAKING OF THE JIM CROW SOUTH, 1930-1964 Sarah McNamara A dissertation submitted to the faculty at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History. Chapel Hill 2016 Approved by: Zaragosa Vargas Jacquelyn Hall Sarah Deutsch Katherine Turk Emily Burrill © 2016 Sarah McNamara ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT Sarah McNamara: From Picket Lines to Picket Fences: Latinas and the Remaking of the Jim Crow South, 1930-1964. (Under the direction of Zaragosa Vargas and Jacquelyn Hall) “From Picket Lines to Picket Fences: Latinas and the Remaking of the Jim Crow South, 1930-1964,” traces the transformation of Latina/o politics and culture in Ybor City and Tampa, Florida. This case study examines and compares the actions of two generations of Latinas as they fought for economic equality, social dignity, and political representation in the early battles for labor, women’s, and civil rights in the United States and abroad. I argue that Latinas were effective as political strategists and public figures because their gender facilitated their activism and protected them from the threats of racial and nativist violence experienced by men of color. In turn, these women’s actions and choices became part of a series of changes that would redefine the meaning and power of latinidad in Florida’s political culture. More than a story of regional activism, this project investigates the relationship between the nation and immigration. It considers the impact of global cultures on American identity to ask crucial questions about how race, ethnicity, and political affiliation influence who has access to American citizenship and why this matters. On the micro-level, this dissertation examines how Latinas and Latinos in Florida negotiated the racial and nativist political policies and social mores that governed their everyday lives. It is an untold story of Latina/os in the southeast—one that encourages scholars to consider Jim Crow’s reach as intersectional rather than black and white and highlights the interplay between different racial iii and ethnic groups as each sought representation. The broader implications of this case study illustrate how these histories of local and regional conflict underline present-day political battles. Historic precedents define and drive national debates surrounding immigration reform and social justice. Understanding the politics of the past brings visibility to unacknowledged histories and challenges resistance to a diverse and inclusive American identity. iv For my grandmother, Norma Blanco Alfonso. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I owe the existence of this project to my family. My dedication to Ybor City’s Latino community is ingrained in my own sense-of-self. I wrote this dissertation because of my grandparents’ memories and persevered through the project because of my family’s encouragement. My parents Andi and Jim McNamara, my grandfather Gustavo Alfonso, my sister Katie McNamara, and her partner Dylan Rigsby provided undying support and constant encouragement as I trudged through documents, claimed home-office space, recruited additional translators, and mobilized their individual talents to reach the final page of this dissertation. A special thank you is owed to my partner and best friend, Stephen Badalyan Riegg, who loved me through this process and had the patience to read chapters a moment’s notice. I cannot thank each member of my family enough for all they have done and given me throughout my life and during these six years. In Chapel Hill I found an intellectual community that provided guidance, support, and kindness. As a graduate student, I was lucky enough to have two advisors and a group of committed mentors. Jacquelyn Hall pushed me to become the best writer I can be and taught me to trust myself as a women’s and gender historian. She introduced me to the world of feminist history as both a discipline and a community, and for that I am forever thankful. Zaragosa Vargas accepted me into the Carolina program as the only Latino Studies student in the History Department, and dedicated himself to my work in a way few advisors would. His devotion to my project and professional success are unmatched. Likewise, I am forever thankful to Sarah Deutsch who had the power to see my project more clearly than I could and vi offered holistic advice that not only helped build this dissertation, but will push me to write a stronger book. In many ways, she was a surrogate advisor who took me on despite the divide of Duke and UNC. Katherine Turk and Emily Burrill joined my committee as both experts and mentors, and provided essential direction to the future of this project. I am grateful I had the opportunity to work with both of them through my work and the Working Group in Feminism and History. The completion of this research and writing would not have been possible without the generous funding of archives and institutions that supported the work. First, I thank Nancy Hewitt, Vicki Ruiz, Robert Ingalls, and Gary Mormino who sent me documents from their personal archives. These historians’ past efforts gave me an incredible head start in the research process. Archivists Jennifer Dietz, Andrew Huse, and Terry Eagan helped navigate the murky waters of Tampa’s city records. Furthermore, I am grateful for research support from the Special Collections at the University of South Florida, the Tulane Center for the Gulf South, the Samuel Proctor Oral History Program at the University of Florida, the Center for the Study of the American South at UNC, the Institute for the Study of the Americas, the American Historical Association, and the National Endowment of the Humanities. Funding from these organizations provided the resources necessary to travel to archives from Florida to Washington D.C., as well as process and conduct oral histories. Completion grants from Phillips Exeter Academy and the Graduate School at UNC gave me the time and resources necessary to complete this dissertation and brave the academic job market. Through the course of graduate school my friends became my second family. Elizabeth Ellis and I forged a friendship during our time at UNC that became essential to my success and happiness in graduate school. I am thankful for her willingness to turn research vii trips into vacations and her high tolerance for long phone conversations. I also thank Jessie Wilkerson for her patience and advice as I navigated graduate school. I am grateful to my fellow Latina and Floridian, Jeanine Navarrete, who always had time to put things into perspective and Rachel Hynson, whose keen editorial eye, pushed me to the end of this project in its final weeks. And finally, my best and forever friends from Tampa and childhood, Karen Baker, Shawna Matthys, and Brooke Organ who were not only supportive but proud of my work in a way only true friends could be. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................. xi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................. xii INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 1 Background: The Landscape of “Cigar City” ............................................................... 4 Historiography ............................................................................................................ 11 Organization ................................................................................................................ 18 CHAPTER 1: NO NOS MOVERÁN (WE SHALL NOT BE MOVED): COMMUNISM, CIVIL RIGHTS, AND INTERNATIONAL DEMOCRACY .................... 20 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 20 Depression and Decline of the Cigar Industry ............................................................ 26 Latina Working-Class Activism and the New Deal .................................................... 38 Demanding Workers’ Rights through Women’s Actions ........................................... 51 In Search of Civil Rights and Citizenship ................................................................... 61 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 63 CHAPTER 2: NEGLECTFUL MOTHERS, DISGRACEFUL RADICALS, AND FOREIGN TRAMPS: LABOR ACTIVISM AND THE STIGMA OF LATINIDAD ............................................................................................................................ 65 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 65 The Limits of Mutual Aid and the Need for Relief .................................................... 70 Neglectful Mothers and Foreign Tramps .................................................................... 81 The Demand for a Living Wage ................................................................................. 90 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 106 ix CHAPTER 3: “OF GOOD MORAL CHARACTER:” COMMUNISTS, FOREIGNERS, AND PATRIOTS ......................................................................................