ABSTRACT HUNTER, FRANCES STALLINGS. A Synthesis of Three Surface Surveys in Central Jordan and an Interpretation of Increased Settlement and Land Use in the Late Byzantine Era. (Under the direction of committee chair Dr. S. Thomas Parker.) The Middle East in the Byzantine period is one of the least analyzed historic periods. Scholars assumed that this was a time of turmoil and unrest when people moved away from the frontiers Rome had previously controlled. New archaeological work is forming contrasting ideas. Evidence from three surface surveys by Burton MacDonald conducted in central and western Jordan, question former ideas of abatement. This thesis will begin with a historical narrative of the ancient Middle East form the Bronze through the Byzantine periods before discussing the surveys. Surface surveys, by nature, are less intensive than excavations because they only analyze surface evidence. These surveys, the Wadi el Hasā Survey, the Southern Ghors and Northeast Άrabah Survey and the Tafila-Busayra Survey produced the first occupational evidence for the contiguous 2, 000 square kilometer area south of Wadi el Hasā. The geology, topography and climate of this area were important factors in land use, so each of these will be discussed relative to ancient land use. Primary sources provide information about this area, its inhabitants, settlement and land use of the region. Diodorus and Strabo are particularly informative. Secondary sources include ancient Middle East scholars Devin Butcher, G. W. Bowersock, Jodi Magness and S Thomas Parker. Methodology will lead discussions of data for each survey. Dates of ceramic artifacts from these surveys establish patterns and shifts in settlement. Parallels for pottery by A.D. Tushingham’s work in Dibon and J.W.Hayes’s Late Roman Pottery provide dating information for these ceramics. Stores of papyri found both in Nessana and Petra will be discussed in conjunction with archaeological evidence. Excavation work in surrounding areas aid in reconstructing Byzantine sedentarization, as central and western Jordan was interconnected with these areas in ancient times. Archaeological excavations by Colt and Urman in the Negev, S. Thomas Parker’s work at Lejjūn and Aila and several excavations in and around Petra will be used to compare settlement and land use in these related areas. Using the three surveys, excavation evidence from the Negev, Petra and nearby areas and support from ancient papyri, this thesis will argue for increased settlement and agricultural land use in this area of Jordan during the Byzantine Era. As a postscript, this thesis will offer thoughts about the implication of the surveys on future archaeological work in central Jordan. A Synthesis of Three Surface Surveys in Jordan and an Interpretation of Increased Settlement and Land Use in the Late Byzantine Era by Frances Stallings Hunter A thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty of North Carolina State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts History Raleigh, North Carolina August 2010 APPROVED BY: _______________________________ ______________________________ Dr. S. Thomas Parker Dr. Ronald H. Sack Committee Chair ________________________________ Dr. Craig T. Friend DEDICATION For my mother The first historian I ever knew Ann Ware Stallings (1936-1996) ii BIOGRAPHY Frances Stallings Hunter attended Converse College and Auburn University, re- ceiving a Bachelors degree from Auburn in 1982 in Fine Arts. After many years as a stay at home mother, preschool teacher and substitute teacher in the Wake County Pub- lic Schools, she enrolled in the graduate program at North Carolina State University in 2005. While in graduate school, Fran has served as the History Graduate Student Asso- ciation Treasurer for three years. She was inducted into Phi Alpha Theta History Honor Society in 2008 and the National Honors Scholars Society in 2009. She also received the Outstanding Graduate Student in Greek award in 2007. She worked as a teacher assistant to Dr. Mark Sosower teaching Greek and to Dr. S. Thomas Parker, working in the ceramics lab and teaching. Fran is currently a museum educator at Mordecai Histor- ic Park in Raleigh, North Carolina. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my appreciation to my children and husband for patience and understanding these last five years. And especially my husband for his genius with a computer! My professors have been invaluable throughout this process. Dr. Tom Parker for guidance and assistance with all things Roman, Dr. Craig Friend for pushing me to be a better writer, and Dr. Ronald Sack for being the first to encourage me and believe in my ability to succeed in graduate school. The History Department at N C State has been open and helpful in every way and has guided me through the past five years, especially Norene Miller who made sure I got everything done. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................... vii LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... viii LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS ......................................................................................... xi CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................. 1 A. Introduction ................................................................................................ 1 B. History – Intensification and Abatement .................................................... 5 C. Overview of Surveys and Methods ............................................................ 18 I. History of Exploration .................................................................... 18 II. Wadi el Hasā Survey ...................................................................... 22 III. Southern Ghors and Northeast Άrabah Survey .............................. 25 IV. Tafile-Busayra Survey .................................................................... 27 D. Topography, Geography and Climate ........................................................ 33 E. Primary Sources .......................................................................................... 40 F. Secondary Sources ...................................................................................... 44 CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................. 47 A. Wadi el Hasā ............................................................................................... 47 I. Methods .......................................................................................... 47 II. Evidence ......................................................................................... 53 a. WHS Central and Eastern Universes .................................. 59 b. WHS Western Universe ..................................................... 62 B. Southern Ghors and Northeast Άrabah ....................................................... 65 I. Methods .......................................................................................... 65 II. Evidence ......................................................................................... 68 C. Tafila-Busayra ............................................................................................ 77 I Methods .......................................................................................... 77 II. Evidence ......................................................................................... 84 v CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................................................. 96 A. Further Research ......................................................................................... 97 I. Pottery ............................................................................................. 97 II. Watermills and Grinding Stones in WHS ...................................... 110 III. Mills and Grinding Stones .............................................................. 116 a. SGNAS ............................................................................... 116 b. TBAS .................................................................................. 118 B. Further Evidence ........................................................................................ 121 I. Negev .............................................................................................. 122 a. Nessana Papyri ................................................................... 122 b. Excavations in the Negev ................................................... 126 II. Petra ................................................................................................ 130 a. Petra Papyri ........................................................................ 130 b. Petra Archaeology .............................................................. 132 III. Limes Arabicus Project .................................................................. 134 IV. Aila ................................................................................................. 135 V. Archaeological Work in the Region after MacDonald ................... 136 C. Synthesis and Conclusion ........................................................................... 138 I. Synthesis of Information ................................................................ 138 II. Future