3 Abbreviations: Printed Editions: PL: J. P. Migne (ed.), Patrologia cursus completus, series latina, (Paris, 1844-1864). SAO: F. S. Schmitt (ed.), S. Anselmi Cantuariensis Archiepiscopi Opera, 1-4. (Thomas Nelson: Edinburgh, 1946-1961). SBO: J. Leclercq, C. H. Talbot, H. M. Rochais, Sancti Bernardi Opera, ad fidem codicum recensuerunt, 1-8, (Editiones Cistercienses: Romae, 1957-1977). Works Cited: Ad cl. de con.: Bernard of Clairvaux, Ad clericos de conversione, SBO, 4, (1966), 69-116. Ap. ad Gui. ab.: Bernard of Clairvaux, Apologia ad Guillelmum abbatem, SBO, 3, (1963), 81- 108. CTB 1: A. Duggan (ed.), The Correspondence of Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, 1162-1170, Volume One, (Clarendon Press: Oxford, 2000). De con.: Bernard of Clairvaux, De consideratione ad Eugenium Papam, SBO, 4, (1963), 393- 493. De dil. Deo: Bernard of Clairvaux, De diligendo Deo, SBO, 3, (1963), 119-154. De disc. cl.: Peter of Celle, De disciplina claustrali, PL 202, 1097-1146B. De gr. et lib. arb.: Bernard of Clairvaux, De gratia et libero arbitrio, SBO, 3, (1963), 165-203. De pr. et disp.: Bernard of Clairvaux, De praecepto et dispensatione, SBO, 3, (1963), 253-294. Ep.: Bernard of Clairvaux, Epistolae, SBO, 7-8, (1974, 1977). His. pon.: M. Chibnall (ed. & trans.), The Historia Pontificalis of John of Salisbury, (Nelson: London, 1956). 4 In Cant.: Bernard of Clairvaux, Sermones super Cantica Canticorum, SBO, 1-2 (1957, 1958). LJS: W. J. Millor and C. N. L. Brooke (eds.), The Letters of John of Salisbury. Volume II: The Later Letters (1163-1180), (The Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1979). LPC: J. Haseldine (ed.), The Letters of Peter of Celle, (Clarendon Press: Oxford, 2001). Poli.: John of Salisbury, Policraticus, PL 175, 379A-822D. s.: Peter of Celle, Sermones, PL 202, 637A-926D. Book Series: NCMH: New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 4 (Parts 1-2), D. Luscombe and J. Riley- Smith (eds.), (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 2004). SICH: Studies in Church History (Oxford, 1964-) 5 Contents: Preface: 6-29. Chapter One: 30-155. Introduction: 30-41. Via Vitae, Sua Pietate: The Rule and the Monastic Church: 41-82. The Dove and the Ark: Monks in the Church: 82-117. Business in the Shadows: Bernard and False Religion: 117-141. Monks in the Mountain: Peter of Celle and the Monastic Church: 140-155. Chapter Two: 156-209. In hac necessitate: John of Salisbury and the Becket Conflict: 161-190. Doeg and Achitophel: John and the English Bishops: 191-199. The Grieving Angels: John and Monasticism: 199-205. Conclusion: 205-209. Chapter Three: 210-262. Dignus itaque ad rem tam dignam digne accede: The Becket Conflict and the Eucharist: 220-238. The Word and the Lamb: Bernard and False Teachers: 239-253. The Wine of Sorrow and the Bread of Grief: Bernard and the Crusade: 253-261. Conclusion: 263-279. Bibliography: 280-320. 6 Preface Blessed are the clean of heart, for they shall see God.1 1 Matthew 5.8: 'Beati mundo corde: quoniam ipsi Deum videbunt.' 7 Christian culture in the European middle ages was the product of the religious imagination.2 This vibrant power has been seen at the heart of social and political organization.3 Its exercise has been linked to every part and place of medieval Christendom. Imaginatio and its images were at the base of religious life and contemplation. This faculty was used by monks and clerics to take hold of the unseen and sacred.4 The learned and the curious also placed this broad internal power at the crossroads of the intellect as the force that acted on the fruits of the senses to 2 For an overview: P. Brown, "Society and the Supernatural: A Medieval Change," Daedalus, volume 104, number 2, (Wisdom, Revelation, and Doubt: Perspectives on the First Millennium B.C; Spring, 1975), 133- 151. A. Funkenstein, Theology and the Scientific Imagination: From the Middle Ages to the Seventeenth Century, (Princeton, 1986). G. Green, Imagining God: Theology and the Religious Imagination, (Grand Rapids; Cambridge, 1998). M. Karnes, Imagination, Meditation, and Cognition in the Middle Ages, (2013). R. Kearney, The Wake of Imagination, (London, 1988), 114-152. J. le Goff, The Medieval Imagination, A. Goldhammer (trans.), (Chicago, 1988). Also, J. le Goff, Medieval Civilization, J. Barrow (trans.), (Oxford, 1988), 152-165. Also, A. H. Bredero, "Against Misunderstanding the Medieval Mentality," in Christendom and Christianity in the Middle Ages, R. Bruinsma (trans.), (Grand Rapids, 1986), 53-79. 3 B. P. Davies, "Beating the Bounds between Church and State: Official Documents in the Literary Imagination," Essays in Medieval Studies: Proceedings of the Illinois Medieval Association, volume 13, (1996), 31-38. G. Duby, G. Duby, The Three Orders: Feudal Society Imagined, A. Goldhammer (trans.), (Chicago; London, 1980). E. Archibald, Incest and the Medieval Imagination, (Oxford; New York, 2001). 4 M. Karnes, "Marvels in the Medieval Imagination," Speculum, volume 90, number 2, (April, 2015), 327- 365, at 328, notes that the imagination as a mental power was ceaselessly debated in the middle ages and that its nature and function remained 'matters for debate.' For the overarching frame of this discussion: H. Berger Jr., "Ecology of the Medieval Imagination: An Introductory Overview," The Centennial Review, volume 12, number 3, (Summer, 1968), 279-313. A. Minnis, "Medieval Imagination and Memory," in A. Minnis and I. Johnson (eds.), The Cambridge History of Literary Criticism, Volume 2: The Middle Ages, (Cambridge, 2005), 237-274. For unseen laws of nature: E. Grant, "Scientific Imagination in the Middle Ages," Perspectives on Science, volume 12, number 4, (Winter, 2004), 394-423. E. Grant, "How Theology, Imagination, and the Spirit of Inquiry shaped Natural Philosophy in the Late Middle Ages," History of Science, volume 49, number 1, (2011), 89-108, esp. 101-106. L. F. Hundersmarck, "The Use of Imagination, Emotion, and the Will in a Medieval Classic: The Meditaciones Vite Christi," Logos: A Journal of Catholic Thought and Culture, volume 6, number 2, (Spring, 2003), 46-62. M. Karnes, Imagination, Meditation, and Cognition in the Middle Ages, 63-141. 8 produce knowledge.5 In the medieval world these were in fact two sides of the same divine consciousness. For Church thinkers the mental pictures that were created by the imagination could be used to stir pride or shame and were thus at the heart of moral instruction.6 Even those who feared this internal power as the source of devious phantasms did so as a result of the dire effects that could flow from its false and harmful exercise.7 The imagination used outside reason was the enemy of a sound religious government. But this hidden faculty was also joined to the solid mass of human experience. Images were used to bring order to the Christian world 5 M. Carruthers, The Book of Memory: A Study of Memory in Medieval Culture, Second Edition, (Cambridge, 2008), 62-68. A. Minnis, "Medieval Imagination and Memory," 239-240: ' The brain…(following a description which goes back to Galen), is divided into three small cells, the first being ymaginatiua, where things which the exterior senses perceive ‘are ordered and put together’; the middle chamber is called logica, where the power of estimation is master; and the third and last is memorativa, the power of remembrance, by which things which are apprehended and known by imagination and reason are held and preserved in the treasury of memory...Images thus produced are handed over to the reason, which employs them in the formation of ideas.' Minnis refers to the De proprietatibus rerum of Bartholomew the Englishman (completed before 1250). Also, S. Kemp and G. J. O. Fletcher, "The Medieval Theory of the Inner Senses," The American Journal of Psychology, volume 106, number 4, (Winter, 1993), 559-576, at 563- 564. A. Minnis, "Medieval Imagination and Memory," in A. Minnis and I. Johnson (eds.), The Cambridge History of Literary Criticism, 2: The Middle Ages, (Cambridge, 2005), 237-274. N. H. Steneck, "Albert the Great on the Classification and Localization of the Internal Senses," Isis, volume 65, number 2, (June, 1974), 193-211, at 197. But note, T. Breyfogle, "Memory and Imagination in Augustine's Confessions," New Blackfriars, volume 75, number 881, (April, 1994), 210-223, at 214-217: St Augustine, still the dominant theologian in our period, did not hold a theory of imagination as we might understand it. Nonetheless, imagination – in intellect and in memory – 'filled the gaps,' and 'supplied the images,' that did not yet exist. That is, it held a mediating role. 6 M. Karnes, Imagination, Meditation, and Cognition, 141-179. A. Minnis, "Medieval Imagination and Memory", 240-241. 7 R. Kearnery, The Wake of Imagination, 114-117. A. Minnis, "Medieval Imagination and Memory," 243- 246. 9 and its social relationships.8 Duby and others have shown how this fact goes to the heart of medieval civilization. Christians in the middle ages saw the world through some of the most powerful images ever used to arrange social life and to explain the cosmos and human existence.9 The greatest of these was the Church itself which is in the end an image of redemption.10 This approach to the world is linked to the modern use of the term 'imagination' to describe how the contents of that world have been conceived or represented.11 From this 8 General: G. Duby, Love and Marriage in the Middle Ages, 132. G. Duby, The Three Orders, 166. E. H. Kantorowicz, The King's Two Bodies: A Study in Mediaeval Political Theology, (Princeton, 1957). J. le Goff, The Medieval Imagination, 1-17. Particular: J. Bossy, "The Mass as a Social Institution, 1200-1700," Past & Present, number 100, (August, 1983), 29-61. W. T. Cavanaugh, "Eucharistic Sacrifice and the Social Imagination in Early Modern Europe," The Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies, volume 31, number 3, (2001), 585-605.