ROOTED/UPROOTED: IDENTITY IN CHIAPAS MAYAN AND MEXICAN-AMERICAN LITERATURE _______________ A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of San Diego State University _______________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in English _______________ by Sean S. Sell Fall 2012 iii Copyright © 2012 by Sean S. Sell All Rights Reserved iv DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my parents Dr. Stewart Sell and Dr. Patricia K. Sell, who have always kept me rooted while encouraging me to branch out. v ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS Rooted/Uprooted: Identity in Chiapas Mayan and Mexican- American Literature by Sean S. Sell Master of Arts in English San Diego State University, 2012 This study examines literature from the Mayan communities of Chiapas, with some discussion of Chicana/o literature in the United States provided for comparison. Through the analysis I will show how connection to place has given the Mayan Chiapan literature a firmer sense of identity, while displacement has contributed to the ever-searching nature of the Mexican-American identity. My first chapter considers available folklore representing the most traditional literature from each of the two cultures. Chapter Two looks at literature reflecting the changing society, whether as an observational reaction or as a voice in the process to make change happen. The third chapter considers the direct and indirect effects on literature of the Zapatista movement in Chiapas as compared to the Chicano movement in the United States. In exploring how the modern Mayans remain connected to their roots, largely by virtue of remaining in the same general geographical location for over a thousand years, I examine how this sense of connectedness comes through, from their origin stories that emphasize the importance of the cultivation of corn, to recent literature demonstrating resistance to the forces of globalization that threaten to take away their land. By contrast, Chicano literature tends to focus on a longing for roots, a sense that part of their identity is lost, and they must now find a place where they can reconnect the past with the present. Issues addressed include the communal nature of the indigenous cosmovision, as well as the Mayan tendency to accept fantastical notions as another level of reality. I also consider how Mayan women specifically have used literature to challenge some aspects of tradition while validating others. The thesis includes many sources for indigenous literature, some of the chief ones being the Cuentos y relatos indígenas series of folk stories, the “Incantations” of Taller Leñateros, and the plays of Sna Jtz’ibajom and La FOMMA. For Chicano literature I rely more on critics, including José E. Limón on corridos, Juan Bruce-Novoa on Chicano movement literature, Gloria Anzuldúa on feminist themes, and Yolanda Broyles-González on theater. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE ABSTRACT ...............................................................................................................................v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................... vii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................1 The Mayans of Chiapas: Ancient Roots Finding Expression in Today’s World ......................................................................................................................2 Mexican-Americans: Making Their Place and their Culture in the United States ........................................................................................................................8 2 TRADITIONAL LITERATURE .................................................................................13 Mayan Oral Literature ...........................................................................................13 Stories Looking Inward..........................................................................................18 Tension with the Dominant Culture .......................................................................22 3 MAYAN LITERATURE OF THE 20TH CENTURY .................................................33 Stories Acknowledging Change .............................................................................33 The Alternative Cosmovision of Mayan Women ..................................................37 Incantations Showing the Mayan Women’s Viewpoint ..................................40 Mayan Women’s Narratives ............................................................................43 Sna Jtz’ibajom: Mayan Community Theater .........................................................47 4 A LITERARY UPRISING ..........................................................................................55 Inspiration in Zapatismo ........................................................................................55 Confronting Intolerable Traditions: The Women’s Movement within the Movement ..............................................................................................................63 Keeping Rooted While Branching Out ..................................................................72 5 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................89 WORKS CITED ......................................................................................................................91 vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I will start by thanking Peter Brown and the Schools for Chiapas organization, whose presence in San Diego first brought the culture of the indigenous people of Chiapas to my attention. When I participated in two Schools for Chiapas caravans to Chiapas over ten years ago, I had no idea the experience would someday be the inspiration for my graduate studies. My gratitude also goes out to the many professors at San Diego State University who encouraged my interest and research, specifically, Dr. Eda Saynes-Vazquez who introduced me to the study of indigenous language history in Mexico, and Professor Phillip Serrato, who helped me see the connection between the indigenous struggles in Mexico and Chicano struggles in the U.S. Professor Serrato also offered consistent encouragement and helpful resources as my thesis committee chair. Thank you to my other committee members: Professor Jane Robinett, whose championing of literature from all over the world helped me take this journey, and who came up with the idea for my title, and Professor José Mario Martin-Flores, whose conversations with me about Mexican literature made me wish I had had the opportunity to take his classes. To my old neighbor Professor June Cummins-Lewis, thank you for helping to guide me through the MA program and finding a way to make my set of interests fit the requirements. I must also acknowledge the help of archaeologist Jon Spenard, sent by some cosmic force to provide much-needed guidance. He led me to connect with the experts: Karen Bassie, Robert M. Laughlin, and Jan Rus, all of whose help was invaluable and unexpected. Particular thanks to go Jan Rus, who graciously answered my email questions with treasure troves of information and encouragement. Finally, I thank all the indigenous storytellers, singers, writers and performers proclaiming their indigenous identity in Chiapas, and the Mexican-American literary voices seeking to make a home in the United States. You help me believe we have a place for many worlds. 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The examination of literature from the indigenous Mayan communities of Chiapas, as compared with Chicano literature from the United States, shows the importance of place in connection to minority identity. For Chicanos, the loss or lack of land is fundamental to their search for identity, while for the indigenous Mexican, identity is fundamentally connected to the land where they still live. The two groups share a goal of maintaining their identities in the face of what can be a hostile dominant society, but the role of place has affected how their identities are expressed. Mexican-American literature, starting from the name – Chicano, Latino, Hispanic, Mexican-American – continually struggles to define its identity. The question of how and where to fit in U.S. society is pervasive. Whether it is in a corrido about the honest man who becomes an outlaw because the law is unfair, a novel about a family trying to keep its land in the face of a new, hostile government, a poem using English and Spanish to express personal hyphenation, or a play that examines a particular conflict in its greater historical or cultural context, the awareness of not fully belonging to the dominant society, of being out of place, is always present, and is part of the overall conversation of the American identity. The literature that has come from indigenous voices in the Mexican state of Chiapas in recent decades does not seek to define an identity or find a place, literally or figuratively, in the greater Mexican nation – defend yes, define no. Though the issue of where they fit in with the rest of Mexico, and the world, is certainly present, the issues of who they are and where they belong are not overt concerns. They have a geographical place, they have a culture, and both have endured from before the Spanish Conquest. Of course they have changed, as any group will change over 500 years, and there has been influence from outside; but the language, the beliefs, the way of life have largely come down from the past. If