The London School of Economics and Political Science Cometh the Hour, Cometh the Nation: Local-Level Opinion and Defence Preparations Prior to the Second World War, November 1937 – September 1939 Paul Norman Horsler A thesis submitted to the Department of International History of the London School of Economics for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, September 2016 1 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the MPhil/PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other persons is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without the prior written consent of the author. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that this thesis consists of 98,844 words. I can confirm that my thesis was copy edited for conventions of language, spelling and grammar by Kathleen Mosselmans 2 Abstract This thesis presents a three-area local case study of expressions of public opinion and the ‘public mood’ regarding British policy towards Germany and defence preparations. The period covered is November 1937 to September 1939. By using local case studies, which existing scholarship has largely ignored, the thesis adds to the national synthesis of events during this period, thereby allowing a more complete history to emerge. The inclusion of local case studies confirms much of the existing narrative but challenges some of the traditional assumptions on issues such as the level of opposition to appeasement and the changes that had already taken place prior to March 1939, when elite opinion shifted. That shift therefore marked the culmination of a process that had begun over a year earlier. This process had been the result of a series of international crises, which provided the psychological changes required in the mind of the British public to enable the nation to prepare for war, despite the continuing desire to avoid a conflict. By combining an analysis of expressions of opinion towards foreign policy with actions taken as part of defence preparations, the thesis identifies the Munich crisis as the major turning point, but it would require a further crisis before the change could be incorporated into mainstream opinion. 3 Acknowledgements I would like to record my thanks to the librarians and archivists who have permitted me to use their collections for research. My thanks especially go to the staff of the Bolton Local History Centre, who responded to my numerous requests during short, intensive research trips. My work colleagues at the LSE Library have had to endure my work on this thesis for the last seven years and have been supportive. Without some chance conversations with them, I would not have known about the papers of Dame Edith Summerskill, which have contributed to this thesis. Writing a thesis has been a lonely experience due to working full-time and studying part-time and not one that I would have got through with the support of friends and family. I would especially like to thank my wife, Rachael, for putting up with the many hours that I have spent on this thesis since we first met in January 2011, which has often meant being away from home. Thanks also go to Kathleen Mosselmans, whose own departure for university in 2009 prompted the decision to undertake this thesis. Since then she has been a source of support and acted as proof-reader. During the writing of this thesis, TADS Theatre Group has played an increasing part in my life. It has been a source of distraction and allowed me to pursue my interest in lighting design. Their production of William Shakespeare’s Henry V, directed by Dr Sue Sachon, stands out for me, as through collaboration with her the play included elements of my own research. Finally, I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor David Stevenson, for his guidance and advice over the last six years. 4 Table of Contents Declaration .............................................................................................................................................. 2 Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................. 4 List of Tables ........................................................................................................................................... 6 List of Figures .......................................................................................................................................... 7 Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................................... 8 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 10 Chapter 1: A long expected union – November 1937 to April 1938 ..................................................... 36 Chapter 2: Escalation and Escape – March-November 1938 ................................................................ 62 Chapter 3: Broken Times, November 1938 – March 1939 ................................................................... 96 Chapter 4: Let Battle Commence, April – September 1939 ................................................................ 123 Chapter 5: Air Raid Precautions, November 1937 – September 1939 ............................................... 145 Planning....................................................................................................................................... 147 Volunteers ................................................................................................................................... 151 Chapter 6: The Safety of Children ....................................................................................................... 195 Chapter 7: Serving the nation ............................................................................................................. 215 Conclusion: Cometh the Hour, Cometh the Nation ............................................................................ 251 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................ 257 Appendix 1: Prominent People ........................................................................................................... 374 Appendix 2: Letter writers to local newspapers ................................................................................. 378 5 List of Tables Table 1: Church attendance during the Munich crisis…………………………………………… 89 Table 2: Church attendance following a crisis……………………………………………………….120 Table 3: ‘Will there be war?’ Response in Worktown, August 1939………………………141 Table 4: Bolton ARP recruitment, 31 December 1937……………………………………………150 Table 5: Bedford ARP recruits in March 1938…………………………………………………….....152 Table 6: ARP recruitment in Fulham: April-September 1938……………………………......154 Table 7: ARP recruitment in Hammersmith: April-September 1938………………………155 Table 8: ARP recruitment in Bolton, Manchester Evening News, 27 May 1938……..157 Table 9: Luton ARP recruitment, February 1939……………………………………………………162 Table 10: Required ARP recruitment for Bedfordshire, January 1939.…………………….163 Table 11: Bedfordshire ARP recruitment, February 1939………………………………………..164 Table 12: Fulham ARP recruitment, September to November 1938…………………………166 Table 13: Fulham ARP recruitment, December 1938 to March 1939……………………….167 Table 14: Bolton ARP recruitment, October 1938……………………………………………………170 Table 15: ARP recruitment in Fulham by age and gender………………………………………..177 Table 16: Fulham ARP recruitment (April 1939 – September 1939)…………………………179 Table 17: Hammersmith ARP recruitment, April-June 1939…………………………………….180 Table 18: Bolton ARP recruitment, April-May 1939…………………………………………………182 Table 19: Bedfordshire billeting capacity…………………………………………………………………199 Table 20: Strength of the Territorial Army, by arms, all ranks on 1 October 1938……219 Table 21: Territorial Army Recruitment 1 April 1936 – 31 March 1937……………………220 Table 22: Territorial Army Recruitment 1 April 1937 – 31 March 1938……………………221 Table 23: Territorial Army Recruitment 1 April 1938 – 31 December 1938……………..225 Table 24: Territorial Army Recruitment 1 January 1939 – 31 March 1939……………….228 Table 25: Weekly National Service Campaign Enrolments……………………………………….237 Table 26: Enrolment before and after National Service Week…………………………………237 Table 27: Deficiencies as of Midnight on 23 May 1939……………………………………………238 6 List of Figures Figure 1 : Luton in the 1930s………………………………………………………………………………….12 Figure 2 : Bedford in the 1930s………………………………………………………………………………13 Figure 3 : Hammersmith in the 1930s…………………………………………………………………….15 Figure 4 : Fulham in the 1930s……………………………………………………………………………….15 Figure 5: Bolton in the 1930s…………………………………………………………………………………17 Figure 6: George Tomlinson speaking at the Empire Cinema…………………………………42 Figure 7: Canvassing the Flower Estate………………………………………………………………….42 Figure