New dialogues with the Ocean as a recreational diver Case study: Ocean Literacy in Mallorca, the Balearic Islands, Spain. Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of Doctor of Philosophy degree Olga García Hernández Institute of Business & Law Aberystwyth University, Wales-UK May 2019 Mandatory Layout of Declaration/Statements Word Count of thesis: 95,625 words DECLARATION This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not being concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree. Candidate name Olga Garcia Signature: Date 15/05/2019 STATEMENT 1 This thesis is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated. Where *correction services have been used, the extent and nature of the correction is clearly marked in a footnote(s). Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references. A bibliography is appended. Signature: Date 15/05/2019 [*this refers to the extent to which the text has been corrected by others] ii STATEMENT 2 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signature: Date 15/05/2019 NB: Candidates on whose behalf a bar on access (hard copy) has been approved by the University should use the following version of Statement 2: I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter-library loans after expiry of a bar on access approved by Aberystwyth University. Signature: Date 15/05/2019 iii Abstract Pablo Neruda said that ' I Need the Sea Because It Teaches Me’ and after time, science proved him right. Oceans are of great importance in ecological (climate regulation, biodiversity) and societal (economic activities, environmental services, and residence) terms. Healthy oceans are therefore fundamental to achieving global sustainability. The European Union has identified ‘blue growth’, or the sustainable use of the oceans, as a core societal challenge for its research programmes (e.g. Horizon 2020). However, at present, we still have a challenge to promote ocean literacy in order to help citizens understand the influence of the oceans on our lives and the impacts of our behaviour on it. Following this approach, an educational movement, called Ocean Literacy, started over 10 years ago in the USA. The main stimulus for this stream was the recognition of a clear absence of marine knowledge within the general population (Aqua TT, 2015). In this sense, given our dependence on the health of the ocean for a wide range of ecosystem services, the 'meaning' and 'attachment' to the largest ecosystem on Earth must be assumed extensively by various sectors. As a key interface, marine tourism has a key role to play in achieving this. Tourism research of twenty first century is defined by the motivations, behaviours and choices of the travellers due to the fact that recreation, at present, is based on the experience (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982; Álvarez Sousa, 2004). As a result, within the context of the Experience Economy (Pine & Gilmore, 1998), 'place meaning' contributes to the value and significance of the setting through the cognitive concepts or/and beliefs of the individual (Stedman, 2002). Concurrently, the 'place attachment' reflects the degree of bond to the setting (Kyle et al., 2003). Regarding this, the present study asks, how can underwater marine ecotourism contribute towards the place-based marine environmental awareness through Ocean Literacy? To answer this main question, an ethnographic study with emic perspective was implemented in a case study in Mallorca (The Balearic Islands, Spain). The fieldwork was conducted during six months (during the tourist season of 2016), using participant observation and semi-structured and unstructured interviews with divers, staff and the potential stakeholders network (science, government, NGO's, and professional associations). iv The scenario identified was an industry involved in a transitional period. It is suggested that this is due to the fact the activity is still conducted as a ‘sport’ but where the tourism is now the main client. At the same time, the experience is based on ‘what you see' but without a systematic transfer of knowledge, and where the staff are poorly trained in heritage interpretation and communication skills. Consequently, the entire structure loses the opportunity to connect the divers to Mediterranean Sea through a ‘sense of place’. Nevertheless, suitable conditions for further development are present: motivated staff; a clear demand of ocean knowledge from tourists; proper facilities; and an active network of knowledge production close to them. As a result, the study suggests a structure to put in place an Ocean Literacy stream in the current recreational diving industry in order to contribute to the aspiration of improved global ocean citizenship. Key words: Ocean literacy; ocean citizenship; recreational diving; marine stakeholders; sense of the place; environmentally responsible behaviour. v Conference presentations Garcia, O. (2018) Challenging the climates of change in scuba diving- towards ocean literacy?. 6th International Adventure Conference: Climate of Changes. Rethinking Adventure Experiences of Adventure Tourism Research Association (ATRA). Valsaín – Segovia (Spain), 30th January -2 nd February 2018 Garcia, O. (2017a) New Dialogues with the Ocean as a Recreational Diver-Case Study: Mallorca, the Balearic Islands (Spain). VII Critical Tourism Studies Conference (CST): Understand tourism - Change tourism; Understand ourselves - Change ourselves. Palma Mallorca (Spain), June, 2017. Awarded Annals of Tourism Research Best Student Paper Garcia, O. (2017b) Recreational diving as a vehicle towards Ocean Literacy. Case study: Mallorca, The Balearic Islands (Spain). 9th International Congress on Coastal and Marine Tourism (CMT): Global challenges local solutions. Gothenburg, Sweden, 13-16 June 2017. Garcia, O. (2016) Recreational diving as a vehicle towards Ocean Literacy. Case study: Mallorca, The Balearic Islands (Spain). Annual Conference of Association for Tourism in Higher Education in UK (ATHE) - PhD Colloquium. Cardiff, December 2016. Awarded The favourite PhD Colloquium presentation. vi Author: Belen Carrillo (copyright retained) vii Table of contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................................. iv Conference presentations ..................................................................................................................... vi Table of contents................................................................................................................................. viii Table of Figures ................................................................................................................................. xi Table of Tables ................................................................................................................................ xiii Buddies of this dive ............................................................................................................................. xiv New dialogues with the Ocean are required ....................................................................................... xvi Chapter 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 17 1.1 Ocean Literacy; discovering the Blue planet for a healthy Earth ................................................ 22 1.2 A liquid planet, called Earth ........................................................................................................ 28 1.3 Recreation in the Blue Planet ..................................................................................................... 34 1.3.1 Recreational diving for the challenges of 21c. ..................................................................... 36 Chapter 2. Conceptual framework ....................................................................................................... 44 2.1 Pro - environmental world vision ............................................................................................... 44 2.2 The cultural service of Nature .................................................................................................... 49 2.3 Motivations ................................................................................................................................ 54 2.4 Ecotourism as guideline.............................................................................................................. 60 2.5 Environmentally Responsible Behaviour .................................................................................... 65 2.6 Storytelling ................................................................................................................................. 73 2.6.1 Emotional domain ............................................................................................................... 75 2.6.2 Cognitive domain ................................................................................................................. 77 2.6.3 Normative domain ............................................................................................................... 79 2.6.4 The trip of knowledge .........................................................................................................