pal-henk-00fm.qxd 10/3/07 2:51 PM Page i The Botswana Defense Force in the Struggle for an African Environment pal-henk-00fm.qxd 10/3/07 2:51 PM Page ii Initiatives in Strategic Studies: Issues and Policies James J. Wirtz General Editor Jeffrey A. Larsen T.V. Paul Brad Roberts James M. Smith Series Editors INITIATIVES IN STRATEGIC STUDIES provides a bridge between the use of force or diplomacy and the achievement of political objectives. This series focuses on the topical and timeless issues relating to strategy, including the nexus of political, diplomatic, psychological, economic, cultural, historic and military affairs. It provides a link between the scholarly and policy communities by serv- ing as the recognized forum for conceptually sophisticated analyses of timely and important strategic issues. Nuclear Transformation: The New U.S. Nuclear Doctrine Edited by James J. Wirtz and Jeffrey A. Larsen Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction in the Middle East: Directions and Policy Options in the New Century Edited by James A. Russell The Last Battle of the Cold War: The Deployment and Negotiated Elimination of Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces in Europe Maynard W. Glitman Critical Issues Facing the Middle East: Security, Politics and Economics Edited by James A. Russell Militarization and War Julian Schofield Global Politics of Defense Reform Edited by Thomas Bruneau and Harold Trinkunas pal-henk-00fm.qxd 10/3/07 2:51 PM Page iii The Botswana Defense Force in the Struggle for an African Environment Dan Henk pal-henk-00fm.qxd 10/3/07 2:51 PM Page iv THE BOTSWANA DEFENSE FORCE IN THE STRUGGLE FOR AN AFRICAN ENVIRONMENT Copyright © Dan Henk, 2007. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles or reviews. First published in 2007 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN™ 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 and Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, England RG21 6XS. Companies and representatives throughout the world. PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St. Martin’s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Macmillan® is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries. ISBN-13: 978-0-230-60218-2 ISBN-10: 0-230960218-5 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available from the Library of Congress. A catalogue record of the book is available from the British Library. Design by Scribe Inc. First edition: January 2008 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Printed in the United States of America. pal-henk-00fm.qxd 10/3/07 2:51 PM Page v Contents List of Figures vii Preface ix Introduction 1 1 A Context for Biodiversity in Botswana 9 2 The Botswana Defense Force 31 3 Military Antipoaching in Botswana 49 4 Organizational Culture and Antipoaching Success 71 5 Government, Military, Society, and Antipoaching in Botswana 87 6 The Face of Environmental Security in Botswana 109 7 Lessons from Botswana 131 Notes 153 Bibliography 199 Index 221 This page intentionally left blank pal-henk-00fm.qxd 10/3/07 2:51 PM Page vii List of Figures Figure 1. Country map, Republic of Botswana, 2007 viii Figure 2. Botswana’s national parks and wildlife conservancies 19 Figure 3. Southern Africa in the 1970s 34 Figure 4. Botswana Defense Force garrison locations, 2007 45 Figure 5. The antipoaching operational area in northern Botswana 51 Figure 6. Botswana Defense Force antipoaching deployments in 2007 56 Figure 7. Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) transfrontier conservation areas, current and proposed 127 pal-henk-00fm.qxd 10/3/07 2:51 PM Page viii Figure 1. Country map, Republic of Botswana, 2007 pal-henk-00fm.qxd 10/3/07 2:51 PM Page ix Preface very author has a purpose and every book has an aim. This author E has two: first, to tell an interesting story; and second, to offer an example for emulation. This book is about an African success. It is a nar- rative of accomplishment that speaks well for a government and an army on a continent where both are widely held in disrepute, demonstrating that Africans are contributing meaningfully to emerging global thinking on security. Some of that thinking involves the environment. These points are illustrated in the experience of one African country that for two decades has employed its capable, professional armed forces to secure its wildlife resources. The information in this book is drawn from many sources. Some comes from the author’s own observations in fifteen years of close con- tact with events in Botswana, first as a military attaché accredited to the country in the early 1990s and then in regular visits on a variety of secu- rity-related projects. Much of the data is derived from the author’s inter- views of individuals in Botswana between 2004 and 2006, including local scholars, government officials, private citizens, foreign diplomats, mem- bers of nongovernmental organizations, and individual members of Botswana’s tourism and hunting industries. A substantial number of the people interviewed for this book were present or past members of the Botswana Defense Force, including its commander at the time, Lieutenant General Louis Matshwenyego Fisher, who greatly facilitated the research by granting open access to his subordinates and making them available for interviews. Despite the support and openness of Botswana’s senior military lead- ership, capturing the relevant details of the Defense Force’s history proved a demanding task. The country’s military history is short, its Defense Force having been founded in 1977. It might seem simple enough to reconstruct its brief past. And members of the military were eager to tell their individual stories, taking obvious pride in their service to the nation. But the Defense Force has never described its own evolu- tion in any comprehensive medium available to the public. Uncovering pal-henk-00fm.qxd 10/3/07 2:51 PM Page x x PREFACE historical detail required the memories of many individuals, and these varied significantly on many points. The difficulty in reconstructing Botswana’s military history was com- pounded by two interesting tendencies among its citizens. The first was an inclination to regard all security-related issues as sensitive and beyond the realm of public discourse. In its first forty years of inde- pendence, Botswana’s attentive public rarely debated security-related topics. Otherwise well-informed citizens were surprisingly uninformed about their own military and somewhat fearful of sharing opinions on security issues. A second obstacle to research was a pronounced hesita- tion among Botswana’s citizens to offer points of view that they consid- ered pejorative. Of course this was not true of everyone in the country. Some citizens were sharply critical of issues, individuals, and organiza- tions. Others may have feared repercussions for their candor. But the author had the strong impression that the widespread aversion to criti- cism was related to local norms of good manners and personal modesty. Uncovering the story required a research approach that probed deeply, sought out the dark cloud behind the silver linings, and carefully com- pared the data from multiple sources. To reconstruct the origins and development of the Defense Force, and even to analyze government choices about the use of the military in antipoaching operations, the author was obliged to “connect dots” and make educated guesses about processes and dynamics. The peculiarities of local political and cultural dynamics in Botswana may have posed a few obstacles to research, but these were far from daunting. Government workers, military officials, and private citizens were unfailingly gracious, even if some endeavored to avoid the author’s questions. Many were sympathetic to the research. Most officials were articulate and apparently candid. The author found capable scholars both in the University of Botswana and in the local civil society who proved to be good sources of credible information. Nor did the physical environment impede the research. Botswana was a pleasant place to live and work. Infrastructure throughout the country was good, facilitating access to people and institutions. Some individuals contributed so substantially that their assistance should be acknowledged here. The author is profoundly grateful to members of the Botswana Defense Force who offered information and encouragement. In addition to the Defense Force commander and many others who will remain unnamed, these included Brigadier E. B. Rakgole, Brigadier Otisitswe B. Tiroyamodimo, Colonel Gaolathe Galebotswe, Major Molefi Seikano, Major T. S. Makolo, Major Morogosi Baatweng, pal-henk-00fm.qxd 10/3/07 2:51 PM Page xi PREFACE xi and Major Max Nkgapha. Members of Botswana’s environmentalist community generously assisted the research, including Sedia C. Modise, former director of the Department of National Parks and Wildlife and now a local coordinator for the Peace Parks Foundation; Felix Monggae, the chief executive officer of the Kalahari Conservation Society; and Masego Madzwamuse, country program coordinator for the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). Larry Patterson, a Gaborone-based veterinarian, wildlife specialist, and consultant, shared repeatedly from his long association with wildlife management in various African countries. Faculty and students at the University of Botswana offered information and perspective. Of these, Professors Ken Good and Shelley Whitman were particularly helpful. Current and former members of the official U.S. community in Botswana assisted the study in multiple ways. Dr. Judy Butterman, an Africanist scholar with a long experience on the continent who was the political and economic affairs officer at the U.S.