Gift-Giving, Memoria, and Art Patronage in the Principalities of Walachia and Moldavia The Function and Meaning of Princely Votive Portraits (14th – 17th Centuries) Laura-Cristina Ştefănescu Student number 3307115 Supervisor: Dr. G. Van Bueren, Utrecht University Second assessor: Dr. A. B. Adamska, Utrecht University Research Master Thesis in Medieval Studies, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, Utrecht University 2010 Motto: “Iubitu mieu fiiu, mai înainte de toate să cade să cinsteşti şi să lauzi neîncetat pre Dumnezeu cel mare şi bun şi milostiv şi ziditorul nostru cel înţelept, şi zioa şi noaptea şi în tot ceasul şi în tot locul.” “My beloved son, first of all, it is right to continuously honour and praise God, our great, good and kind and wise creator, during the day and during the night, at all hours and in all places.” - Neagoe Basarab, Învăţăturile lui Neagoe Basarab către fiul său Theodosie (The Teachings of Neagoe Basarab to His Son Theodosie) - “Dirept acéia, feţii miei, mi vă rog să pomeniţi şi pre mine în sfânta voastră rugăciune şi nu uitareţi pre mine, cela ce sunt oaia cea rătăcită şi tatăl vostru, ca se priimească şi pre mine, păcătosul, Domnului nostru Iisus Hristos, pentru rugăciunea voastră […]” “For that reason, my sons, please remember me in your holy prayer and do not forget me, who am the lost sheep and your father, so that I, the sinner, may be received by our Lord Jesus Christ because of your prayer […]” - Neagoe Basarab, Învăţăturile lui Neagoe Basarab către fiul său Theodosie (The Teachings of Neagoe Basarab to His Son Theodosie) - 1 Table of Contents Introduction 4 1. The Subject Matter: The Problematic and Research Questions 4 2. The Approach 7 3. The Importance of the Research 12 Chapter I: Historiography, Paradigms and Concepts 14 1. Romanian Historiography 14 2. Western European Perspectives: Gift-Giving and Memoria 19 3. The Act of Founding – Definitions 28 Chapter II: The Sources: Methodological Challenges 33 1. The Sources 33 1.1. Architecture and Iconographical Sources 33 1.2. Written Sources 36 1.3. The Oral Tradition: Foundation Legends 38 1.4. A Broader Perspective: Other Sources 40 2. Votive Portraits and Their State of Preservation 41 2.1. Originals and Acceptable Restorations 42 2.2. Disputed Restorations 44 2.3. Complete Alterations 45 3. Restrictions 47 Chapter III: The Foundations 48 1. General Outlines: The Founders and Their Foundations 48 2. The Architecture 53 3. The Paintings 57 4. Conclusion: Motivation and Function 61 4.1. The Spiritual Function 61 4.2. The Funerary Function: The Princely Necropolis 63 4.3. Defending Christianity 64 4.4. The Political and Social Function 66 Chapter IV: The Votive Portraits 68 2 1. Location 68 1.1. Related to Architecture 68 1.2. Related to the Iconographical Program 69 1.3. Reception 71 2. The Background 72 3. The Composition and the Protagonists 73 4. The Inscriptions: The Relation between Image and Text 76 5. The Worldly Level 78 5.1. The Portrait: The Face 78 5.2. The Costume 79 5.3. The Hands: Attitudes, Gestures and Objects 81 6. The Religious Level 82 6.1. From this World to the Other: Divine Figures and Intercessors 82 6.2. From the Other World to this One: Receiving the Crown 84 7. The Political Level 85 7.1. Towards the Past: Succession Series 85 7.2. The Present: The Figure of the Prince 88 7.3. Towards the Future: The Followers 89 8. The Social Level 90 8.1. The Family 90 8.2. Women 91 9. Conclusion: Motivation and Function 92 9.1. The Liturgical Function: Remembrance and Commemoration 92 9.2. A Political and Social Statement 93 Conclusions 95 1. A Comparative Perspective 95 2. The Message and the Meaning 97 3. Questions for the Future 98 Appendices 101 1. Princely Religious Foundations from Walachia and Moldavia 101 3. Illustrations 134 Bibliography 190 3 Introduction 1. The Subject Matter: The Problematic and Research Questions There is an amazing quality about portraits, because they are an invitation to remember. When the dust of time covers the traces of the past, portraits act like preservers of memory, evoking those who have walked the face of the earth before us. If one of the many foreign vistors crowded in the small, almost claustrophobic, space of a church from a monastery hidden among the green hills of Northern Moldavia, looks around carefully at the interior walls, covered from top to bottom with paint centuries old, he might discover an image that would remind him of similar representations from his own country. The image I refer to is the votive portrait1 of the founder and his family, offering the model of the church he has build to God. The following research focuses on exactly this type of source. The present thesis is concerned with the votive portraits of princes of Walachia and Moldavia, from the 14th to the end of the 17th century that can be found in princely foundations. I intend to bring these sources together, in order to analyze them in the context of the act of founding a church or a monastery. I would like to decipher what were the functions of these votive portraits, related to those of the church in which they are to be found, as well as the motivations that have led the founder to build the religious edifice and to have himself portrayed on its walls, these being my main research questions. I am hoping to decipher the message that these foundations and votive portraits were intended to deliver, being guided by Western European methodologies, namely the paradigms of gift-giving and memoria, which, through their concepts, allow a holistic understanding of these phenomena. From a spatial perspective, my thesis focuses on sources from Romania, because up to now, for this territory, the votive portraits of princes have not been thoroughly analyzed as a whole, within the framework of a monograph. In the Middle Ages, on the territory of nowadays Romania, there were three separate principalities: Transylvania, Walachia and Moldavia. I chose to focus only on the last two, because of the similarities between them. I excluded Transylvania, both for the necessity of restriction and for its particularities. Transylvania had a different 1 The term votive will be defined in the third part of the first chapter. 4 history, being dominated by the Hungarian monarchy. Consequently, its culture has been influenced a lot by Western Europe, separating it, somehow, from the other two principalities that would more or less share a history. Surely, between Walachia and Moldavia there are several differences too, as I will explain later on, but, here, orthodoxy was able to flourish, as opposed to Transylvania, which became officially a catholic land. The chronological limits of this thesis might surprise the Western European medievalist, who might claim that the 17th century has nothing to do with the Middle Ages. However, for Romania, as for other countries as well, this artificial chronological framework is extended according to a different evolution, in which the characteristics that we define as medieval persist. The 17th century is not fully medieval. It is a transition period, in which the echo of the Middle Ages slowly fades away. However, the reason for choosing this timeframe (14th – 17th centuries) is another. This period is marked by the so-called earthly reigns (domnii pământene), characterized by the rule of local princes, from families of Walachia and Moldavia. In 1711 (Moldavia) and 1714 (Walachia), begins the Phanariote reign, meaning that, from now on, the two principalities were ruled by princes from the members of important Greek families, living in Phanar, the Greek quarter of Constantinople, from which their name derives. To sum up, my timeframe begins in the 14th century, when the principalities of Walachia and Moldavia were created and ends in the 17th century that emphasizes the end of the medieval period and the beginning of another political and cultural period, marked by the Phanariote rule. The research question of this thesis has been restricted in several ways, which I would like to point out in what follows, for a clear understanding of the subject matter. First of all, my primary sources represent votive portraits of princes, which can be found painted on the walls of the churches and monasteries they have founded. That is to say, on the one hand, that my main focus is represented only by the frescoes that show memorial princely portraits and, on the other hand, that these images come exclusively from their own foundations. I understand by this churches and monasteries built and painted by princes; built by others, but painted or repainted by them; and built and painted by others from their explicit order. I will not take into account the portraits of princes from churches and monasteries that have been built by other members of the society, like clerics or boyars2. My second restriction, of which more will be said in chapter two, regards the state of preservation of the frescoes. Even though I started with a number of over two 2 Boyars represent the highest rank of the feudal aristocracy in Walachia and Moldavia. 5 hundred princely foundations3, I ended up with around fifty painted ensembles. The others are either completely destroyed, a ruin, have never been painted or I did not find any information on them. From the fifty that were painted, some were repainted in the 19th century, some slightly modified and some remarkably preserved. Obviously, they were not equally useful for the purpose of my research and this implied a new restriction, reducing their number to half, for reasons which will be explained later on.