Data Papers on Papua New Guinea Languages Volume 61 Nukna Grammar Sketch Matthew A. Taylor 2015 SIL-PNG Academic Publications Ukarumpa, Papua New Guinea Papers in the series Data Papers on Papua New Guinea Languages express the authors’ knowledge at the time of writing. They normally do not provide a comprehensive treatment of the topic and may contain analyses which will be modified at a later stage. However, given the large number of undescribed languages in Papua New Guinea, SIL-PNG feels that it is appropriate to make these research results available at this time. René van den Berg, Series Editor Copyright © 2015 SIL-PNG Papua New Guinea [email protected] Published 2015 Printed by SIL Printing Press Ukarumpa, Eastern Highlands Province Papua New Guinea ISBN 9980 0 3990 6 Table of Contents List of maps and tables .............................................................................ix Abbreviations .......................................................................................... xii Acknowledge ments ................................................................................ xiii 1. Introduction.........................................................................................1 1.1 Location and population ................................................................. 1 1.2 Language name.............................................................................. 2 1.3 Classification and earlier studies ..................................................... 2 1.4 Dialects ......................................................................................... 2 1.5 Language use and bilingualism ....................................................... 4 1.6 Use of the language in writing ........................................................ 5 1.7 Neighbouring languages ................................................................. 6 1.8 Nukna culture ................................................................................ 7 1.9 Typological overview..................................................................... 9 2. Phonology ..........................................................................................10 2.1 Phonemes and allophonic variation ............................................... 10 2.2 Orthography ................................................................................ 12 2.3 Syllable structure ......................................................................... 12 2.4 Stress placement .......................................................................... 13 2.5 Morphophonemics ....................................................................... 14 2.5.1 Degemination .................................................................. 15 2.5.2 Vowel elis ion and assimilat ion.......................................... 17 2.5.3 Consonant elision ............................................................ 20 2.5.4 Consonant lenition ........................................................... 21 2.5.5 Voic ing assimilat ion ........................................................ 21 2.5.6 Place assimilat ion ............................................................ 22 2.6 Clit ics ......................................................................................... 24 2.6.1 Case enclitics................................................................... 24 2.6.2 Topic enclit ic ................................................................... 25 2.6.3 Negation proclitic ............................................................ 27 2.7 Euphonic Pairs............................................................................. 27 3. Nouns and noun phrases ..................................................................28 3.1 Noun phrase structure .................................................................. 28 iii iv 3.2 Pronouns ..................................................................................... 29 3.2.1 Personal pronouns............................................................ 29 3.2.2 Interrogative pronouns ..................................................... 36 3.2.3 Pro-form - wáina ............................................................. 37 3.2.4 Dual and trial pronouns .................................................... 38 3.3 Nouns ......................................................................................... 39 3.3.1 Alienable versus inalienable nouns.................................... 40 3.3.2 Possession ....................................................................... 40 3.3.3 Number ........................................................................... 42 3.3.4 Derivations by reduplication and compounding.................. 45 3.4 Demonstratives ............................................................................ 51 3.5 Adjectives ................................................................................... 54 3.6 Quantif iers .................................................................................. 59 3.7 Numerals..................................................................................... 59 3.8 Possession ................................................................................... 59 3.8.1 Possessive pronoun suffix................................................. 60 3.8.2 Genit ive clit ic .................................................................. 61 3.8.3 Inalienable possession ...................................................... 62 3.8.4 Place names as possessors ................................................ 63 3.9 Noun phrase coordination ............................................................. 64 3.9.1 The coordinate conjunction me ......................................... 65 3.9.2 Coordination between two animate noun phrases ............... 65 3.9.3 The coordinate conjunction hang ...................................... 66 3.9.4 Apposition....................................................................... 66 4. Postpositions and postpositional phrases........................................69 4.1 Postpositions ............................................................................... 69 4.2 Postpositional phrases .................................................................. 70 4.2.1 Comitative....................................................................... 71 4.2.2 Similative ........................................................................ 73 4.2.3 Reflexive identity ............................................................ 75 4.2.4 Locative .......................................................................... 76 4.2.5 Allative ........................................................................... 77 4.2.6 Genit ive plus allat ive ....................................................... 80 4.2.7 Ablat ive .......................................................................... 81 4.2.8 Directiona l ...................................................................... 83 5. Verbs and verb phrases ....................................................................85 5.1 Verb classes ................................................................................ 85 5.2 Verb morphology......................................................................... 86 v 5.2.1 Person and number subject agreement ............................... 86 5.2.2 Tense, aspect, modality, mood .......................................... 87 5.2.3 Verb compounding .......................................................... 88 5.2.4 Participles as modif iers .................................................... 89 5.3 Strategies for marking transitive verbs........................................... 91 5.3.1 ‘Regular’ object cross-indexing: prefixes........................... 91 5.3.2 ‘Irregular’ object cross-indexing: supplet ion ...................... 94 5.3.3 Cross-indexing an object with an SVC .............................. 95 5.3.4 Zero object marking ......................................................... 97 5.4 Final vs. medial verbs .................................................................. 99 5.4.1 Different-subject medial verbs ........................................ 100 5.4.2 Same-subject medial verbs ............................................. 101 5.5 Serial verbs ............................................................................... 102 5.6 Existential verbs ........................................................................ 102 5.7 Verb phrase ............................................................................... 104 5.7.1 Simple verb phrase......................................................... 104 5.7.2 Serial verb constructions ................................................ 104 5.7.3 Light verb constructions and adjunct nominals................. 104 5.7.4 Experiencer verb phrase ................................................. 107 5.7.5 Negative verb phrase...................................................... 107 5.8 Adverb phrase ........................................................................... 107 6. Tense, aspect, modality, mood .......................................................108 6.1 Tense ........................................................................................ 108 6.1.1 Immediate future tense ................................................... 110 6.1.2 Future tense vs. dubitative future tense ............................ 111 6.2 Aspect......................................................................................