01 2012 International façades - CROFT International façades - CROFT Climate Related Optimized Façade Technologies Marcel Bilow 01 TU Delft, Faculty of Architecture 2012 Architectural Engineering + Technology department International Façades - CROFT Climate Related Optimized Façade Technologies Marcel Bilow TU Delft, Faculty of Architecture, Architectural Engineering + Technology department International Façades - CROFT Climate Related Optimized Façade Technologies Thesis presented for the degree of doctor at TU Delft under the authority of the Rector Magnificus, Prof.ir. K.C.A.M. Luyben, Chairman of the Board for Doctorates to be defended in public in the presence of a committee on April 23th, 2012 at 15:00 o’clock by MARCEL BILOW Diplomingenieur für Architektur Fachhochschule Lippe und Höxter / Detmold born at Bielefeld /Duitsland This thesis is approved by the supervisor(s): Prof.dr.-Ing. U. Knaack Prof.dr.ir. A. C.J.M. Eekhout Composition of Doctoral Committee: Rector Magnificus, Chairman Prof.dr.-Ing. U. Knaack Delft University of Technology, promotor Prof.dr.ir. A. C.J.M. Eekhout Delft University of Technology, promotor Prof.dr.ir. A. van den Dobbelsteen Delft University of Technology Prof. T. Asselbergs Delft University of Technology Prof.dr.ir. A. van Timmeren Delft University of Technology Dipl.-Ing. T. Auer Transsolar Energietechnik GmbH/Stuttgart Prof.Ing. M. Haas University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Prof.ir. R. Nijsse Delft University of Technology abe.tudelft.nl Ontwerp: Sirene Ontwerpers, Rotterdam ISBN/EAN: 978-94-6186-027-9 ISSN: 2212-3202 © 2012 Marcel Bilow Inhoudsopgave (beknopt) Preface 9 1 Introduction 23 2 Climate zones 39 3 Principles of climate-adapted architecture 139 4 The Façade 169 5 Building services components 185 6 FET Façade Expert Tool 219 7 Climate Responsive Optimised Façade Technologies CROFT 299 8 Conclusion 327 7 Inhoudsopgave (beknopt) 8 International Façades - CROFT Preface Acknowledgments This thesis was written at the Technical University of Delft, Faculty of Architecture, at the chair Design of Construction. It would not have been possible without the help of others. Therefore I would like to express my gratitude and add a few personal notes. First and foremost I would like to thank my doctoral advisors Ulrich Knaack and Mick Eekhout: Ulrich Knaack not only supported my decision to undertake this work in the first place, but also became advisor, discussion partner and friend. We spent countless hours in the car going over different ideas and concepts. He provided me with invaluable constructive criticism. This work would not have been possible without all the many facets of his support. With him founding the Façade Research Group at the chair Design of Construction at TU Delft, I was able to broaden my studies on an international level, and quickly felt part of a team of like-minded. Mick Eeckhout helped me take my first steps into the world of science, particularly with his open and direct attitude. I will never forget the evening of our VCW, during which he impressively demonstrated that scientists need to conquer the unknown territories of our area of expertise – sword drawn – to bring light into the dark of the unknown. In addition, he helped me gain insight into the Dutch culture and history. Both Ulrich Knaack and Mick Eeckhout share the love of sailing. During the time I worked in this thesis I was fortunate to also become acquainted with this sport, and it provided me with numerous moments of inspiration. I also owe particular thanks to Thomas Auer from Transsolar. As my favourite climate designer he got me addicted to the idea of intelligent climate concepts, and has demonstrated the principle of integral planning in practice. He and the entire Transsolar team offered content-related support and constructive criticism. Not least due to Thomas Auer was it possible to create the Façade Expert Tool. I would also express my gratitude to the members of the exam commission Prof. Andy van den Dobbelsteen, Prof. Arjan van Timmeren, Martin Haas, Prof. Thijs Asselbergs and Prof. Rob Nijsse. 9 Preface I would also like to thank Tillmann Klein. In his function as Leader of the Façade Research Group he is not only available to all of the PhD students to help with any of the day-to-day problems they might have, but his ability to think outside the box for even the most complex detail or problem and find a solution has made him into a partner in practice and research as well as a personal friend who I do not want to miss. By the way, he is a passionate sailor, too… Thank you also to Cramer Silkworth for programming FET, Usch Engelmann for her help with translation and proof-reading and Mireille Snels for the dutch part of it. A great thanks also goes to all of my friends - Uli, Rouven and Michael in particular - who have mentally supported me during this time and have stood with me and supported decisions that were not always easy. And, last but certainly not least, I am very grateful to my parents, especially for their trust in the path I took and the goals I set for myself. They have always supported me in any way possible, were always open to new ideas and provided criticism when necessary. Marcel Bilow Delft, December 2011 10 International Façades - CROFT ‘To my parents and my closest friends’ 11 Preface 12 International Façades - CROFT Inhoudsopgave (uitgebreid) 1 Introduction 23 1.1 Background 23 1.1.1 Climate-adapted building methods, vernacular architecture 23 1.1.2 The façade as an interface between interior and exterior 24 1.1.3 Energy considerations; why we need to rethink 26 1.2 Research Framework 28 1.2.1 Problem definition 28 1.2.2 Objectives 29 1.2.3 Research Questions 30 1.3 Approach and Methodology 31 1.4 Structure of the dissertation 32 1.5 Schema of the dissertation 35 2 Climate zones 39 2.1 Climate zones basics 39 2.2 Climate zones basics 41 2.3 The basics of climate analysis 42 2.4 Climate analysis methods 43 2.4.1 Annual temperature profile 44 2.4.2 Annual air humidity profile 45 2.4.3 Psychrometric Charts 47 2.4.4 Monthly radiation distribution 48 13 Inhoudsopgave (uitgebreid) 2.4.5 Dew point profile 49 2.4.6 Wind rose 51 2.4.7 Wind force distribution 54 2.5 Climate zones / selection of boomtowns 55 2.6 Eight boomtowns 58 2.6.1 Berlin 58 2.6.2 Dubai 67 2.6.3 Las Vegas 75 2.6.4 London 83 2.6.5 Moscow 92 2.6.6 New York 101 2.6.7 Shanghai 111 2.6.8 Singapore 120 2.7 Summary of the climate analysis 128 2.8 Initial graphic analysis of the air conditioning required 132 3 Principles of climate-adapted architecture 139 3.1 Influence of the climate on architecture 139 3.2 Vernacular architecture / indigenous architecture / building without an architect 139 3.3 Building methods and principles in different climate zones 141 3.3.1 Snow climates / polar region 141 3.3.2 Boreal or snow-forest climate / moderate climate 142 3.3.3 Warm moderate rain climates / moderate zone 147 3.3.4 Tropical rain climates / Tropics 151 3.3.5 Dry climates / Subtropics 153 3.4 Wind catcher and solar chimneys 156 3.5 Matrix for climate-adapted architecture 163 3.6 Potential of transfer to modern building construction 165 14 International Façades - CROFT 4 The Façade 169 4.1 The evolution of the façade 169 4.2 The façade – buffer and regulator 174 4.3 Comfort 175 4.3.1 Thermal requirements 175 4.3.2 Visual requirements 178 4.3.3 Hygienic requirements 179 4.3.4 Acoustic requirements 180 4.3.5 Productivity 181 5 Building services components 185 5.1 Heating 186 5.1.1 Radiator (perimeter radiator) 187 5.1.2 Convector (perimeter convector) 188 5.1.3 Subsurface convector (perimeter FloorFintube) 189 5.1.4 Underfloor heating (radiant floor) 189 5.1.5 Concrete core heating / overhead radiation heating (radiant ceiling) 190 5.1.6 Overhead induction heating (active beam) 191 5.1.7 Central air heating / air-conditioning system (overhead heating vent) 191 5.1.8 Decentralised air heating / air-conditioning system 192 5.2 Cooling 193 5.2.1 Concrete core cooling / overhead radiation cooling (radiant ceiling) 194 5.2.2 Overhead induction cooling (active chilled beam) 194 5.2.3 Passive chilled beam / baffles 195 5.2.4 Cooling panels / cooling ceilings / cooling sails 196 5.2.5 Central air-cooling 196 5.2.6 Decentralised air-cooling 196 5.2.7 Night flush ventilation 197 5.3 Ventilation 198 5.3.1 Natural ventilation 199 5.3.1.1 Gap ventilation 199 5.3.1.2 Window ventilation 200 5.3.1.3 Shaft ventilation 200 15 Inhoudsopgave (uitgebreid) 5.3.1.4 Double façades 201 5.3.1.5 Mechanical ventilation 202 5.3.1.6 Central ventilation systems 202 5.3.1.7 Decentralised mechanical ventilation 203 5.3.1.8 Window fan 204 5.3.1.9 Decentralised ventilation units 204 5.4 Humidification and dehumidification 207 5.4.1 Central air-conditioning 208 5.4.2 Decentralised air-conditioning 210 5.5 Sun protection 211 5.5.1 Internal sun and glare protection 212 5.5.2 Fixed sun protection 212 5.5.3 Operable sun protection 212 5.5.4 Specialised solutions 213 5.5.5 Summary sun protection 214 5.6 Light directing 214 6 FET Façade Expert Tool 219 6.1 Available façade or climate tools – background 220 6.1.1 Clear guideline 220 6.1.2 Climate Consultant 5.0 223 6.1.3 MIT Design Advisor 226 6.2 The idea behind FET 229 6.3 Development of FET 231 6.3.1 Temperature 231 6.3.2 Humidity 233 6.3.3 Wind 234 6.3.4 Recommendations for façades and building services functions 235 6.3.5 Ventilation and night time cooling 238 6.3.6 Waste heat recovery 240 6.3.7 Glazing ratio 241 6.3.8 Graphic editor 242 16 International Façades - CROFT 6.4 FET in use 245 6.4.1