MASTER THESIS Identity Negotiation of Indigenous Peoples in the Process of Rural-Urban Migration Name: Roman Meier Student Number: 910523554070 E-Mail: [email protected] Thesis Supervisor: Dr. Bram Jansen University: Wageningen University and Research (WUR) Program: Master of Science in International Development Studies Specialization: Disaster Studies Abstract Nepal is both the most rural country in South Asia and the one with the highest urbanization rate. In line with this broader development, rural-urban migration by indigenous peoples has steadily increased in recent years. The overall purpose of this study is to better understand how indigenous peoples organize and experience rural-urban migration to Kathmandu Valley. Relying on an ethnographic approach and a theoretical perspective that conceives migration as a practice of mobility, the study is concerned with the links between the urban life and identity negotiation of indigenous individuals and communities likewise. More concrete, the study focusses on how indigeneity is experienced and expressed in the urban setting, how this is related to the development of a spatially grounded sense of belonging and in what regard identitary conflicts inform political action. The analysis reveals that indigeneity, a concept that emphasizes cultural distinctiveness, corresponds only little with the everyday realities in Kathmandu and that it is better conceived in dynamic terms. Furthermore, the study demonstrates that Kathmandu is not only a spatially bounded place but also an extension of the ancestral territories that can be best understood through the rural linkages of indigenous migrants. Keywords: Identity / Rural-Urban Migration / Indigenous Peoples / Nepal Acknowledgements Alone, I would never have been able to conduct my fieldwork and write this thesis. I am tremendously thankful for all the people that supported me. Therefore, one love goes out to: My parents for supporting me throughout my whole studies not only financially but also emotionally. My girlfriend Elorry for generally being the realest person on earth and for particularly helping me to stay tuned during hard days in Nepal. My supervisor Bram Jansen for giving me the intellectual freedom to pursue my own research path while still providing me with inputs that strongly enhanced my thesis. My second reader Gemma Van der Haar for being a teacher with an extraordinary sensitivity for the concerns of young students of today. My Nepali friends who supported my fieldwork – especially Niraz, Suma, Gobinda, Nisha, Prem, Taktutk, Mukesh, and Neera. Last but not least, for Jean Ziegler who showed me that sociology is resistance against the inhumanity of the contemporary world order. Table of Contents 1. Introductory Part ........................................................................................................ 5 1.1 Problem Statement and Research Questions ........................................................... 6 1.2 Historical and Cultural Context............................................................................ 12 1.2.1 Indigenous Peoples under a Global Perspective................................................ 12 1.2.2 Ethnicity and Politics in Nepal ......................................................................... 15 2. Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................ 21 2.1 Rural-Urban Migration ........................................................................................ 22 2.1.1 Migration as a Necessity of Modernity ............................................................. 22 2.1.2 Migration as a Practice of Mobility .................................................................. 24 2.2 The Rural-Urban Space ....................................................................................... 27 2.2.1 The Rural-Urban Dichotomy and its Variations ............................................... 27 2.2.2 Beyond the Rural-Urban Dichotomy ................................................................ 29 2.3 Identity ................................................................................................................ 33 2.3.1 Identity in Everyday Interaction ....................................................................... 33 2.3.2 Cultural Adaption and Identity Negotiation ...................................................... 36 3. Methodological Reflections ....................................................................................... 39 3.1 Research Design .................................................................................................. 40 3.2 Ethnography and Data Collection Methods .......................................................... 46 3.2.1 Interviews and the Difficulty of Sense-Making ................................................ 46 3.2.2 Observations and the Difficulty of Representation ........................................... 48 3.2.3 Fieldtrip to the Terai ........................................................................................ 50 3.3 Data Analysis and Writing ................................................................................... 52 3.4 Ethical Considerations ......................................................................................... 54 4. Results and Discussion .............................................................................................. 56 4.1 A Sense of Belonging and the Urban Space ......................................................... 58 4.1.1 Home-Making in Kathmandu and the Ancestral Home .................................... 58 4.1.2 A Grounded Sense of Belonging as a Capacity ................................................ 65 4.1.3 Interim Conclusion .......................................................................................... 69 4.2 Inside the Urban Communities ............................................................................. 71 4.2.1 The Urban Maghi Celebration .......................................................................... 71 4.2.2 Indigenous Languages and the Work of the HSCC ........................................... 80 4.2.3 Interim Conclusion .......................................................................................... 86 4.3 Identity and the Outside World ............................................................................ 88 4.3.1 External Communitarization ............................................................................ 89 4.3.2 Identity Politics ................................................................................................ 97 4.3.3 Interim Conclusion ........................................................................................ 108 4.4 Taking a Step Back: Beyond Complexity ........................................................... 110 4.4.1 From Marxism to Constructivism .................................................................. 110 4.4.2 The Political Consequences of Embracing Complexity .................................. 113 4.4.3 Interim Conclusion ........................................................................................ 115 5. Final Part ................................................................................................................. 116 5.1 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 117 5.2 Outlook ............................................................................................................. 120 6. Addendum ............................................................................................................... 122 6.1 Bibliography ...................................................................................................... 123 6.2 Appendix: Main Interview Guide....................................................................... 130 List of Figures, Photographs and Tables Figure 1: Map of Nepal ....................................................................................................... 20 Figure 2: Identity in Everyday Interaction ........................................................................... 34 Figure 3: Connection between Dominant Terms of Cultural Adaption ................................. 37 Figure 4: Sample-Population Relationship .......................................................................... 43 Figure 5: Map of Rural Fieldtrip ......................................................................................... 51 Photo 1: House and Garden of Tharu-1 ............................................................................... 69 Photo 2: Nepal Police Force at Maghi ................................................................................. 74 Photo 3: Food Stalls one Day before Maghi ........................................................................ 76 Photo 4: Sherpa Language Class ......................................................................................... 83 Photo 5: Board Members of HSCC ..................................................................................... 84 Table 1: Research Questions at a Glance ............................................................................. 11 Table 2: Indigenous Communities with Share of Total Population ...................................... 16 Table 3: Level of Marginalization of Indigenous Peoples in Nepal ...................................... 19 Table 4: Selection