Introduction to Systems Engineering V. Arrichiello “It seems natural to begin the discussion with an immediate formal definition of systems engineering. However, systems engineering is an amorphous, slippery subject that does not lend itself well to such formal, didactic treatment . ” Hendrik Wade Bode: The Systems Approach, in Applied Science – Technological Progress, report to the Committee on Science and Astronautics, US House of Representatives (1967) 2 ©2014 Vincenzo Arrichiello - INCOSE Italia Systems Engineering WHEN? WHY? WHO? WHERE? WHAT? HOW? 3 ©2014 Vincenzo Arrichiello - INCOSE Italia When? Cultural Context 4 ©2014 Vincenzo Arrichiello - INCOSE Italia When? Cultural Context 1940 - “Operations Research 1948 - Norbert Wiener “Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine” 1950 - Ludwig von Bertalanffy “An outline of General Systems Theory” Google books Ngram Viever 5 ©2014 Vincenzo Arrichiello - INCOSE Italia When? Cultural Context General System Theory While in the past, science tried to explain observable phenomena by reducing them to an interplay of elementary units investigatable independently of each other, conceptions appear itin contemporary sc ithtience that are concerne dithd with what is somewhat vaguely termed "wholeness," i.e., problems of organization, phenomena not resolvable into local events, dynamic interactions manifest in the difference of behavior of parts when isolated or in a higher configuration, etc.; in short, "systems" of various orders not understandable by investigation of their respective parts in isolation. Hence the appearance, in all fields of science, of notions like wholeness, holistic, organismic, gestalt, etc., which all signify that, in the last resort, we must think in terms of systems of elements in mutual interaction. Ludwig von Bertalanffy, General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications, 1968, Braziller. 6 ©2014 Vincenzo Arrichiello - INCOSE Italia When? Cultural Context General System Theory The meaning of the somewhat mystical expression, "the w ho le is more th an th e sum of par ts"i" is s imp ly thtthat constitutive characteristics are not explainable from the characteristics of isolated parts. The characteristics of the complex, therefore, compared to those of the elements, appear as "new" or "emergent." Ludwig von Bertalanffy, General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications, 1968, Braziller. 7 ©2014 Vincenzo Arrichiello - INCOSE Italia When? Cultural Context General System Theory Open system is defined as a system in exchange of matter with its environment, presenting import and export, building-up and breaking-down of its material components. The basis of the open-system model is the dynamic interaction of its components. Ludwig von Bertalanffy, General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications, 1968, Braziller. 8 ©2014 Vincenzo Arrichiello - INCOSE Italia When? Cultural Context General System Theory Technology has been led to think not in terms of single machines but in those of "systems." A steam engine, automobile, or radio receiver was within the competence of the engineer trained in the respective specialty. But when it comes to ballistic missiles or space vehicles, they have to be assembled from components originating in heterogeneous technologies, mechanical, electronic, chemical, etc.; relations of man and machine come into play; and innumerable financial, economic, social and political problems are thrown into the bargain. Ludwig von Bertalanffy, General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications, 1968, Braziller. 9 ©2014 Vincenzo Arrichiello - INCOSE Italia When? Cultural Context General System Theory Technology has been led to think not in terms of single machines but in those of "systems." A steam engine, automobile, or radio receiver was within the competence of the engineer trained in the respective specialty. But when it comes to ballistic missiles or space vehicles, they have to be assembled from components originating in heterogeneous technologies, mechanical, electronic, chemical, etc.; relations of man and machine come into play; and innumerable financial, economic, social and political problems are thrown into the bargain. Thus, a "systems approach" became necessary. A certain objective is given; to find ways and means for its realization requires the systems specialist (or team of specialists) to consider alternative solutions and to choose those promising optim iza tion a t maxiffiidiiltimum efficiency and minimal cost itin a tremen dldously complex network of interactions. Ludwig von Bertalanffy, General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications, 1968, Braziller. 10 ©2014 Vincenzo Arrichiello - INCOSE Italia When? Cultural Context Cybernetics In the newer study of automata, whether in the metal or in the flesh, … we deal with automata effectively coupled to the external world, not merely by their energy flow, their metabolism, but also by a flow of impressions, of incoming messages, and of the acti ons of out goi ng messages. To sum up: the many automata of the present age are coupled to the outside world both for the reception of impressions and for the performance of actions. They contain sense organs, effectors, and the equivalent of a nervous system to integrate the transfer of information from the one to the other. They lend themselves very well to description in physiological terms. [Organic Analogy] Norbert Wiener, Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine, 1948, MIT Press 11 ©2014 Vincenzo Arrichiello - INCOSE Italia When? Cultural Context Cybernetics The behavioristic approach consists in the examination of the output of the object and of the relations of this output to the input. By output is meant any change produced in the surroundings by the object. By input, conversely, is meant any event external to the object that modifies this object in any manner. … a uniform behavioristic analysis is applicable to both machines and living organisms, regardless o fthf the comp lex ity o fthf the be hav ior. Rosenblueth A., Wiener N. and Bigelow J., Behavior, Purpose and Teleology, 1943, Philosophy of Science, 10 12 ©2014 Vincenzo Arrichiello - INCOSE Italia When? Cultural Context Cybernetics The terms "black box" and "white box" are convenient and figurative expressions of not very well determined usage. I shall understand by a black box a piece of apparatus, such as four-terminal networks with two input and two outpu t term ina ls, w hic h per forms a de fin ite opera tion on the presen t an d pas t of the input potential, but for which we do not necessarily have any information of the structure by which this operation is performed. On the other hand, a white box will be similar network in which we have built in the relation between input and output potentials in accordance with a definite structural plan for securing a previously determined input-output relation Norbert Wiener, Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine, 1948, MIT Press 13 ©2014 Vincenzo Arrichiello - INCOSE Italia When? Cultural Context Operations Research An objective of Operations Research is to provide managers of the organization with a scientific basis for solving problems involving the interaction of components of the organization in the best interest of the organization as a whole. The comprehensiveness of O.R.'s aim is an example of a "systems" approach, since "system" implies an interconnected complex of functionally related components. ... to see a system as a whole means not only to see all its components and their interrelationships but also all aspects of its operations . Churchman C.W., Ackoff R.L., Arnoff E.L., "Introduction to Operations Research", John Wiley & Sons, 1957 14 ©2014 Vincenzo Arrichiello - INCOSE Italia When? Cultural Context Operations Research Mixed Team Approach Although mathematicians, physicists and engineers were essential, the best of the groups also contained physiologists, biochemists, psychologists, and a variety of representatives of other fldfhbfields of the bioc hemica l an d socia l sciences. … it was found that members of such diverse groups could work together and could form a unit which was much greater than the mere sum of its parts. Warren Weaver “Science and complexity,” American Scientist, 36 (1948) 15 ©2014 Vincenzo Arrichiello - INCOSE Italia When? Technological Context 16 ©2014 Vincenzo Arrichiello - INCOSE Italia Historical Context "On Guard! The Story of SAGE", IBM Corporation, Military Products Division, (ca. 1956), The Internet Archive, Prelinger Archives 17 ©2014 Vincenzo Arrichiello - INCOSE Italia Historical Context "On Guard! The Story of SAGE", IBM Corporation, Military Products Division, (ca. 1956), The Internet Archive, Prelinger Archives 18 ©2014 Vincenzo Arrichiello - INCOSE Italia Historical Context "On Guard! The Story of SAGE", IBM Corporation, Military Products Division, (ca. 1956), The Internet Archive, Prelinger Archives 19 ©2014 Vincenzo Arrichiello - INCOSE Italia Historical Context "On Guard! The Story of SAGE", IBM Corporation, Military Products Division, (ca. 1956), The Internet Archive, Prelinger Archives 20 ©2014 Vincenzo Arrichiello - INCOSE Italia When? Historical Context 21 ©2014 Vincenzo Arrichiello - INCOSE Italia When? Systems Engineering was mainly developed "out of necessity" by these programs ICBM SAGE APOLLO 22 ©2014 Vincenzo Arrichiello - INCOSE Italia Intercontinental Ballistic Missile Program (ICBM) The Air Force ballistic missile