FREE THE HORN OF AFRICA SINCE THE 1960S 1ST EDITION PDF Aleksi YlГѓВ¶nen | 9781317028574 | | | | | Horn of Africa by Philip Caputo The area is the easternmost projection of the African continent. Referred to in ancient and medieval times as the land of the Barbara and Habesha[5] [6] [7] the Horn of Africa denotes the region containing the countries of DjiboutiEritreaEthiopiaand Somalia. Regional studies on the Horn of Africa are carried out, among others, in the fields of Ethiopian Studies as well as Somali Studies. This peninsula has been known by various names. Ancient Greeks and Romans referred to it as Regio Aromatica or Regio Cinnamonifora due to the aromatic plants or as Regio Incognita owing to its uncharted territory. The name Horn of Africa is sometimes shortened to HoA. Quite commonly it is referred to simply as "the Horn", while inhabitants are sometimes colloquially termed Horn Africans. Today at the Bab-el-Mandeb straits, the Red Sea is about 12 miles 20 kilometres wide, but 50, years ago it was much narrower and sea The Horn of Africa since the 1960s 1st edition were 70 meters lower. Though the straits were never completely closed, there may have been islands in between which could be reached using simple rafts. Shell middensyears old have been found in Eritrea, [14] indicating the diet of early humans included seafood obtained by beachcombing. The findings of the Earliest Stone Tipped Projectiles from the Ethiopian Rift dated The Horn of Africa since the 1960s 1st edition more thanyears ago in combination with the existing archaeological, fossil and genetic evidence, isolate this region as a source of modern cultures and biology, and it is considered the place of origin for humankind. Ethiopian and Eritrean agriculture established the earliest known The Horn of Africa since the 1960s 1st edition of the seed grass teff Poa abyssinica between — BCE. Coffee also originated in Ethiopia and has since spread to become a worldwide beverage. The area comprising northern SomaliaDjiboutithe Red Sea coast of Eritrea and Sudan is considered the most likely location of the land known to the ancient Egyptians as Punt or "Ta Netjeru," meaning god's landwhose first mention dates to the 25th century BCE. With its capital probably at Yehathe kingdom developed irrigation schemes, used plowsgrew milletand made iron tools and weapons. The Kingdom of Aksum also known as the Aksumite Empire was an ancient state located in the Eritrea and Ethiopian highlandswhich thrived between the 1st and 7th centuries CE. A major player in the commerce between the Roman Empire and Ancient IndiaAksum's rulers facilitated trade by minting their own currency. The state also established its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the Arabian peninsulaeventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom. Under Ezana fl. Northern Somalia was an important link in the Horn, connecting the region's commerce with the rest of the ancient world. Somali sailors and merchants were the main suppliers of frankincensemyrrh and spices, all of which were valuable luxuries to the Ancient EgyptiansPhoeniciansMycenaeansBabylonians and Romans. In the classical eraseveral flourishing Somali city-states such as OponeMosylon and Malao also competed with the SabaeansParthians and Axumites for the rich Indo - Greco-Roman trade. The birth of Islam opposite the Horn's Red Sea coast meant that local merchants and sailors living on the Arabian Peninsula gradually came under the influence of the new religion through their converted Arab Muslim trading partners. With the migration of Muslim families from the Islamic world to the Horn in the early centuries of Islam, and the peaceful conversion of the local population by Muslim scholars in the following centuries, the ancient city-states eventually transformed into Islamic MogadishuBerberaZeilaBarawa and Merkawhich were part of the Barbara civilization. During the Middle Agesseveral powerful empires dominated the regional trade in the Horn, including the Adal Sultanatethe Ajuran Sultanatethe Warsangali Sultanatethe Zagwe dynasty The Horn of Africa since the 1960s 1st edition, and the Sultanate of the Geledi. The Sultanate of Showaestablished inwas one of the oldest local Islamic states. It was centered in the former Shewa province in central Ethiopia. The polity was succeeded by the Sultanate of Ifat around Ifat was governed from its capital at Zeila in northern Somalia and was the easternmost district of the former Shewa Sultanate. The Adal Sultanate was a medieval multi-ethnic Muslim state centered in the Horn region. At its height, it controlled large parts of Somalia, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Eritrea. Many of the historic cities in the region, such as AmudMadunaAbasaBerberaZeila and Hararflourished during the kingdom's golden age. This period that left behind numerous courtyard housesmosquesshrines and walled enclosures. The Warsangali Sultanate was a kingdom centered in northeastern and in some parts of southeastern Somalia. It was one of the largest sultanates ever established in the territory, and, at the height of its power, included the Sanaag region and parts of the northeastern Bari region of the country, an area historically known as Maakhir or the Maakhir Coast. The Sultanate was founded in the late 13th century in northern Somalia by a group of Somalis from the Warsangali branch of the Darod The Horn of Africa since the 1960s 1st edition, and was ruled by the descendants of the Gerad Dhidhin. Through a strong centralized administration and an aggressive military stance towards invaders, the Ajuran Sultanate successfully resisted an Oromo invasion from the west and a Portuguese incursion from the east during the Gaal Madow and the Ajuran-Portuguese wars. Trading routes dating from the ancient and early medieval periods of Somali maritime enterprise were also strengthened or re-established, and the state left behind an extensive architectural legacy. Many of the hundreds of ruined castles and fortresses that dot the landscape of Somalia today are attributed to Ajuran engineers, [30] including a lot of the pillar tomb fields, necropolises and ruined cities built during that era. The royal family, the House of Gareen, also expanded its territories and established its hegemonic rule through a skillful combination of warfare, trade linkages and alliances. The Zagwe dynasty ruled many parts of modern Ethiopia and Eritrea from approximately to The name of the dynasty comes from the Cushitic -speaking Agaw people of northern Ethiopia. From onwards for many centuries, the Solomonic dynasty ruled the Ethiopian Empire. In the early 15th century, Ethiopia sought to make diplomatic contact with European kingdoms for the first time since Aksumite times. The first continuous relations with a European country began in with Portugal under Emperor Lebna Dengelwho had just inherited the throne from his father. When Emperor Susenyos converted to Roman Catholicism inyears of revolt and civil unrest followed resulting in thousands of deaths. On 25 JuneSusenyos's son, Emperor Fasilidesdeclared the state religion to again be Ethiopian Orthodox Christianityand expelled the Jesuit missionaries and other Europeans. During the end of 18th and the beginning of 19th century the Yejju dynasty more specifically, the Warasek ruled north Ethiopia changing the official language of Amhara people to Afaan Oromo, including inside the court of Gondar which was capital of the empire. The Sultanate of the Geledi was a Somali kingdom administered by the Gobroon dynasty, which ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. It was established by the Ajuran soldier Ibrahim Adeerwho had defeated various vassals of the Ajuran Empire and established the House of Gobroon. The dynasty reached its apex under the successive reigns of Sultan Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahimwho successfully consolidated Gobroon power during the Bardera warsand Sultan Ahmed Yusufwho forced regional powers such as the Omani Empire to submit tribute. The Majeerteen Sultanate Migiurtinia was another prominent Somali sultanate based in the Horn region. Ruled by King Osman Mahamuud during its golden age, it controlled much of northeastern and central Somalia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The polity had all of the organs of an integrated modern state and maintained a robust trading network. It also entered into treaties with foreign powers and exerted strong centralized authority on the domestic front. Initially, Kenadid's goal was to seize control of the neighboring Majeerteen Sultanate, which was then ruled by his cousin Boqor Osman Mahamuud. However, he was unsuccessful in this endeavor, and was eventually forced into exile in Yemen. A decade later, in the s, Kenadid returned from the Arabian Peninsula with a band of Hadhrami musketeers and a group of devoted lieutenants. With their assistance, he managed to establish the kingdom of Hobyo, which would rule much of northeastern and central Somalia during the early modern period. In the period following the opening of the Suez canal inwhen European powers scrambled for territory in Africa and tried to establish coaling stations for their ships, Italy invaded and occupied Eritrea. On 1 JanuaryEritrea officially became a colony of Italy. In further Italian incursion into the horn was decisively halted by Ethiopian forces. ByEritrea had aboutinhabitants, The Horn of Africa since the 1960s 1st edition 70, Italians. The British continued to administer the territory under a UN Mandate untilwhen Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia, as per UN resolution A and under the prompting of the United States adopted in December The strategic importance of Eritrea, due to its Red Sea coastline and mineral resources, was the main cause for the federation with Ethiopia, which in turn led to Eritrea's annexation as Ethiopia's 14th province in This was the culmination of a gradual process of takeover by the Ethiopian authorities, a process which included a edict establishing the compulsory teaching of Amharicthe main language of Ethiopia, in all Eritrean schools.