7 Leslau, Givi Machavariani, Enver Makajev, Alexis Manaster Ramer, Manfred Mayrhofer, ' Gennadij Mel'nikov, Karl-Heinrich Menges, Peter A. Michalove, Alexander Militarëv, Tatjana Moll, Oleg Mudrak, Hans Mukarovsky, Vladimir Napolskikh, Gregorio del Olmo Lete, Vladimir Orël, Letas (Mykolas) Palmaitis, Ilya Peiros, Karel Barukh Podolsky, Viktor Porxomovski, Mrs. Valentina Postovalova, Chaim Rabin, Jens E. Rasmussen, Colin Renfrew, Hayim Rosén, Otto Rössler, Mstislav Rostropovich, Merritt Ruhlen, Helmut Satzinger, Russel Schuh, Vitaliy Shevoroshkin, Kiyoshi Shimizu, Viktor Shnirelman, Neil Skinner, George Starostin, Serge Starostin, Richard Steiner, Wolfgang Steinitz, Mrs. Olga Stolbova, Mrs. Neda Strazhas, J o h n Street, Gabriel Superfin, Morris Swadesh, Aleksander Syrkin, Gábor Takács, Vladimir Terentjev, Jakov Testelec, Vladimir Toporov, Henri Tourneux, Genrikh Turover, Boris Uspenski, Ms. Rina Viers, Rainer Maria Voigt, Werner Vycichl, Ms. Kay Williamson, Viktor Yampolsky, Vladimir Yampolsky, and Andrzej Zaborski, as well as to the staff of the library of the University of Haifa that provided me with literature (including rare books that were published in exotic countries) that is necessary for my research. Thanks are further due to Mr. Eden Orion (Computer Services, Univ. of Haifa) and to Ms. Dora Kemp (Publications Office, the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, UK) for their invaluable professional help that enabled the publication of this dictionary. I should liketo express my gratititude to Ms. Dora Kemp and to Mrs. Gila Abrahamson (Haifa) for their help in checking my imperfect (alas!) English style. Finally I wish to acknowledge the patience and support of my wife Zippora and the help of my children: my daughter Ilana, my sons Hayim, Ilya and Jacob who supported me each in his own way during the long years of research whichIntroduction have resulted in the present 7 dictionary. INTRODUCTION: THE NOSTRATIC MACROFAMILY § 1. The Nostratic macrofamily. This is a hypothetic macrofamily of languages, including Indo-European (IE), Hamito-Semitic (HS) ( = Afroasiatic) (comprising Semitic [S], Egyptian [Eg], Berber [B], Cushitic [C], Omotic [Om] and Chadic [Ch]), Kartvelian (K ), Uralic (U ) (= Finno- Ugric8 [FU], Samoyed [Sm] and Yukaghir [Y]), Altaic (A ) (= Turkic [T], Mongolic [M], Tungusic [Tg], Korean [Ko], and Japanese [J]), a n d Dravidian (D ). The hypothesis is based on a large amount of c o m m o n roots (more than 2,800) and many common grammatical morphemes, in which regular sound correspondences have been established (cf. IS MS, IS SS, IS I-III, AD LRC, AD SShS, AD LZL, AD PP, AD NGIE, AD NVIE, AD NM). Among the most important resemblances is that of personal pronouns and inflectional person-markers of the 1st and 2nd persons ( for 'I' in IE, U, A and K, (> (> for ' t h o u ' in IE, HS, U and M, etc.), that of interrogative pronouns (originally for 'who?' and for 'what?', surviving entirely or partially in IE, HS, K, U and A), basic lexical words (roots in descenfant languages) such a s 'stay' (> 'be') preserved in IE ( ), HS, U and K, ' t o eat' (IE, HS, M), 'to hold, take' (all branches except U), 'water' (all branches except K), 'name, word' (IE, HS, U, A), as well as words connected with culture of the final paleolythic age (cf. AD NM), such as 'woman of another moiety' > words f o r 'daughter-in-law', 'sister-in-law' and 'bride' in IE (Latin Greek , Slavic / ), S, U, A and D. The original Nostratic phonology (as reconstructed by V. Illich-Svitych and A. Dolgopolsky) had a rich consonant system (see below) and 7 vowels. The grammatical structure was, most probably, analytic with a rigid w o r d order (a sentence-final verb, attributive precedes its head, pronominal subject follows its verb) and with grammatical meanings expressed by word order, postpositions ( for genitive, for m a r k e d accusative, and others) and grammatical pronouns. It is very plausible that there are other members of the Nostratic macrofamily: Chukchee-Kamchadal, Eskimo-Aleut, Gilyak, Elamic (possibly connected with Dravidian) and possibly also Etruscan. But t h e comparativistic and etymological investigation of these languages is still at its very beginning, therefore at the present stage of Nostratic research they have not yet been included in the framework of comparison. § 2. Phonology. § 2.1. Consonants. According to the extant comparative evidence, proto-Nostratic had a rich consonant system and 7 vowels. Nostratic consonant chart Stops and affricates Fricatives Central Nasals Lateral Vi aproxi- sonants br mants ants 8 roots (more than 2,800) and many common grammatical morphemes, in which regular sound correspondences have been established (cf. IS MS, IS SS, IS I-III, AD LRC, AD SShS, AD LZL, AD PP, AD NGIE, AD NVIE, AD NM). Among the most important resemblances is that of personal pronouns and inflectional person-markers of the 1st and 2nd persons ( for 'I' in IE, U, A and K, (> (> for ' t h o u ' in IE, HS, U and M, etc.), that of interrogative pronouns (originally for 'who?' and for 'what?', surviving entirely or partially in IE, HS, K, U and A), basic lexical words (roots in descenfant languages) such a s 'stay' (> 'be') preserved in IE ( ), HS, U and K, ' t o eat' (IE, HS, M), 'to hold, take' (all branches except U), 'water' (all branches except K), 'name, word' (IE, HS, U, A), as well as words connected with culture of the final paleolythic age (cf. AD NM), such as 'woman of another moiety' > words f o r 'daughter-in-law', 'sister-in-law' and 'bride' in IE (Latin Greek , Slavic / ), S, U, A and D. The original Nostratic phonology (as reconstructed by V. Illich-Svitych and A. Dolgopolsky) had a rich consonant system (see below) and 7 vowels. The grammatical structure was, most probably, analytic with a rigid w o r d order (a sentence-final verb, attributive precedes its head, pronominal subject follows its verb) and with grammatical meanings expressed by word order, postpositions ( for genitive, for m a r k e d accusative, and others) and grammatical pronouns. It is very plausible that there are other members of the Nostratic macrofamily: Chukchee-Kamchadal, Eskimo-Aleut, Gilyak, Elamic (possibly connected with Dravidian) and possibly also Etruscan. But t h e comparativistic and etymological investigation of these languages is still 8at its very beginning, therefore Introductionat the present stage of Nostratic research they have not yet been included in the framework of comparison. § 2. Phonology. 9 § 2.1. Consonants. According to the extant comparative evidence, proto-Nostratic had a rich consonant system and 7 vowels. Voiced Voice- Emph. Voiced Voice- less Nostratic consonantless chart Nostratic consonant chart Stops and affricates Fricatives Central Nasals Lateral Vi aproxi- sonants9 br Stops and affricates Fricatives mantsCentral approximants Nasals = Lateral sonants Vibrants ants Voiced Voice- Emph. Voiced Voice- less less = (= ) Symbols in the chart: affricates: =(= ) = = = ; lateralobstruents: , - lateralized ; palatalized consonants: = palatalized ; and ( = Symbols in the chart: affricates: = = = = ; ) = cacuminallateralobstruents: or retroflex, and- lateralized; uvular stops:; palatalized(voiced) (voiceless)consonants:("emphatic"); uvular= palatalizedfricatives: = Spanish; and, (= Arabic ) = cacuminal or retroflex and ; uvular stops: (voiced) ; epiglottal(voiceless)(pharyngeal)("emphatic"); consonant: uvular fricatives: voiceless= Spanish(= , ==ArabicArabic ), voiced (= ;Arabicepiglottal ).(pharyngeal) consonant: voiceless (= = Arabic ), voiced (= Arabic ). In proto-Nostratic,In proto-Nostratic, as it asis itreconstructed is reconstructed onon the the basis basis of exstant of exstantdata, data, there are therethree areseriesthree seriesof stops of stops and andaffricates:affricates: voicedvoiced ( ( , , etc.),, , etc.), voiceless (voiceless , ( , etc.),, , etc.),andand"emphatic""emphatic" ( ( , ,, etc.)., etc.).The exactThe exact phonetic realization of the "emphatic" consonants is not yet clear. phonetic Illich-Svitychrealization andof myselfthe (up"emphatic" to the recentconsonants years) interpreted is notthem yeta s clear. Illich-Svitychglottalized and myselfejectives. (upBut toto-day the I redocent not years)insist on interpretedthis particularthem a s glottalized interpretation.ejectives. InBut fact,to-day the emphatic I do stopsnot areinsist represented on thisin K particularas glottalized, in HS as glottalized or plain voiceless (the distribution being interpretation.probably In due fact, to prosodic the factors),emphatic in U stops(in the intervocalicare represented position) asin K as glottalized,geminated in HS asvoiceless glottalized stops, orin Aplain as fortes, voiceless in IE (in(the its distribution traditional being probably dueinterpretation) to prosodic as voiceless. factors), The incommon U (in denominator the intervocalic of their K, HS,position) U as and A reflexes is an additional effort (if compared to the reflexes of N geminated plainvoicelessvoiceless stops,stops). Onein cannotA as determinefortes, inthe IEoriginal (in itsphonetic traditional interpretation)realization as voiceless.of this additional The commoneffort (glottalization, denominatoraspiration, of theirfortis K, HS, U and A reflexesarticulation?). is an additionalI prefer to denoteeffort them(if ascompared "emphatic" toand the to usereflexes the of N traditional Orientlistic underdot as their symbol. plain voicelessRecentlystops).StarostinOneproposedcannot to interpretdetermine the emphaticthe