ESSENTIAL FRIENDS AND NATURAL ENEMIES: THE HISTORIC ROOTS OF TURKISH-IRANIAN RELATIONS By Gokhan Cetinsaya* This article outlines Turkish-Iranian relations since the early 1820s from the viewpoint of the Turkish political and military elite. The author argues that Turkish-Iranian relations have basically been determined by historical, geographic, strategic and cultural dimensions rather than leaders (the Shah or Khomeini), regimes (the monarchy or the republic), or ideologies (secular or Islamic). On examining the history of Turkish- central preoccupation for the Ottoman Iranian relations one finds many parallels government during both the Crimean War for contemporary events and issues, of 1853-1856 and the Russo-Turkish War which show the importance of long-term of 1877-1878. The remarks of Fuad Pasa, geostrategic and cultural issues in one of the chief policymakers, conveys shaping this relationship. These apply to this concern: the Ottoman Empire and monarchical Iran as well as to the successor regimes. The government of [Iran], which In turn, the problems—and sometimes is in a state of continual disorder solutions—involved give a good sense of and in the grip of Shi’i fanaticism, the underpinnings for contemporary and has always been at one and in future issues between the two countries. agreement with our enemies. After the establishment of the Safavi Even in the Crimean War, she state in Iran during the early sixteenth came to an agreement with Russia century, Ottoman/Turkish-Persian/Iranian and united her ambitions with relations were characterized by hers. The fact that she was unable continuous struggle and numerous wars. to bring her hostile calculations to Power struggles took place over eastern fruition was due to the West’s Anatolia/Iranian Azerbaijan and prudent and vigilant diplomacy. Iraq/western Iran. The Ottomans’ focus Today, the Shah’s government of interest was Azerbaijan and the follows in the wake of [Russia]. Caucasus region, while the Iranians were As long as the Ottoman concerned with Iraq, which contains the government is not occupied holiest sites of Shi`i Islam. This elsewhere, the discredited Iranian prolonged struggle continued in varying government, being impotent, degrees until the end of the First World ignorant and incapable of taking War.(1) any initiative on its own, dares not Following the 1821-1823 war between quarrel with us. However, at the the two countries, and despite Iran’s moment of our first confrontation relative military inferiority, Ottoman with Russia, Iran will take her statesmen considered Iran a potential place among our most military threat, particularly in the event of irreconcilable enemies, due to her a Russian invasion of Anatolia. For this political dependence and, more reason, policy toward Iran remained a important, her blind jealousy, in Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 7, No. 3 (September 2003) 116 Essential Friends and Natural Enemies: The Historic Roots of Turkish-Iranian Relations spite of our cautious and well- demands to the detriment of our intentioned attitude. Fortunately, country, as if placing salt on those the Ottoman government, in wounds, and the territory of Kotur addition to material resources, was added to the territories of also possesses moral possibilities Iran: truly, these are evils to be to contain a country which is neither forgiven nor forgotten.(5) crushed under such a barbarous despotism, faces a series of While in strategic terms Iran was governmental crises, and is ready to side with the Ottoman Empire’s entirely surrounded by Sunnis.(2) enemies, though, elements of the political and religious elite of Iran considered the Fuad Pasa`s prediction proved true. reforms implemented by Turkey during For example, one of the core problems in the Tanzimat era to be a model for their bilateral relations remained the question own country, viewing the Ottoman of boundaries. Several Kurdish tribes Empire as a bridge between Europe and inhabited both sides of the Turco-Persian Iran. Iranian bureaucrats who visited the frontier and did not recognize any border. empire often attempted to implement or Both states competed to gain the tribes’ at least recommend similar reforms in loyalty and to establish patronage over Iran on their return home. These people each other’s Kurds.(3) After the peace included, for example, Mirza Taqi Khan treaty of 1823 failed to solve the problem Emir-e Kabir, Mirza Hosein Khan Moshir and as the process of Ottoman od-Dowleh, and Malkom Khan.(6) At the centralization began, the boundary same time, Istanbul became a center for question once more came to the fore. As Iranian dissidents, political refugees and a result of Russian and British opposition groups consisting of former intervention, an agreement was finally officials, intellectuals and men of letters. reached in 1847 stipulating that the entire One of the most important and influential border be surveyed by a mixed Persian newspapers of the time, the commission, whose work was finally Ahter, was published in Istanbul.(7) completed in 1865 and the frontier was The center for the Iranian religious confirmed by a convention signed in elite in the nineteenth century was in Istanbul in 1869.(4) another corner of the empire: the Shi’i But this step did not finally resolve the holy places in Iraq--known as the Atabat. issue either. When Iran proved useful to The Atabat became a center for the Shi’i Russia during the Russo-Turkish war of ulama; together with most of the 1877-78, Russia inserted article 60 into important Shi’i mujtahids, a large number the Berlin treaty ending the conflict of mollas, akhunds, and students resided which gave the disputed territory of in the Atabat. The Atabat always retained Kotur (near Van) to Iran. Ottoman its primacy as a center of religious observers recorded their disappointment authority, and the role of the Atabat with Iran’s behavior: mujtahids actually increased in Iranian politics in the late nineteenth century.(8) In those dark days, when we had At the same time, a pro-Ottoman group, emerged from the war [with called ‘Pan-Islamists’, emerged in Iranian Russia] with many wounds, and politics, especially among the ulama.(9) faced manifold difficulties at the All these afforded the Ottoman congress [of Berlin], the Muslim government the possibility of exploiting state of Iran, which, in a war ‘moral opportunities’ to influence Iran. considered a jihad, should at least The Pan-Islamic tendency first have been benevolent, if not a emerged in Ottoman public opinion in the helper, came forward with various early 1870s.(10) Followers of this 117 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 7, No. 3 (September 2003) Gokhan Cetinsaya tendency addressed themselves directly to least harming the sacred rights of Iran. For example, a leaflet distributed our padishah and the sultanate, among Iranian pilgrims in the Hijaz which are of more value than my during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877- life. And I deem this within the 78 stated: bounds of possibility. If it becomes apparent that the O people of Iran! You are not Iranians fail to appreciate our among the Imamiye taife conciliatory conduct, act high- (followers of the recognized handedly, and strive to destroy the Imams). The Ehl-i Sunnet just aspirations of the Ottoman (followers of the Sunna) state, then there is no doubt that acknowledge that you are Muslim with God’s help, under the and ehl-i kible (People of the auspices of our padishah, it will Qibla). You in turn acknowledge be easy to compel them to adopt a that they are Muslim and ehl-i correct course.(12) kible. The matters in dispute are points of no importance; the basis Thus, while the Ottoman press and refuge for both parties is the appealed to the Iranians in the name of Holy Qur’an. Is it fitting that you ittihad-i Islam (the unity of Islam or Pan- should remain mere spectators Islamism), the Ottoman mission to the when you observe that for so Emir of Afghanistan in 1877 (in the midst many years up to the present the of the Turco-Russian war) inquired as to Ottoman Empire has been at war ‘which attitude the Emir would take in with Russia? When Russia the event of Iran’s [aggressive] action occupied Hiva, there appeared against the Ottoman state’.(13) rumors that you had helped Russia. If, henceforth, when THE REIGN OF ABDULHAMID II Russia attacks one of her The policy described by Ali Pasa neighbors, you do not assist the seems to have been wholeheartedly victim, but assist the oppressor applied during the reign of Sultan who wishes to destroy Islam, our Abdulhamid II (1876-1908/9). In the affection for you will be context of Abdulhamid’s Pan-Islamic destroyed and furthermore we will policy, “moral possibilities” and be unable to look upon you as “material resources” were utilized Muslims.(11) interchangeably. After a short-lived rapprochement in the early 1880s(14) the This new approach toward Iran Ottoman government faced two imminent appears to have become the dominant threats involving Iran in the early 1890s. view, among foreign policy makers as First, this period witnessed a marked well as public opinion, from the late increase in Armenian nationalist guerrilla 1860s onwards. For Ottoman statesmen, activities. The Armenian revolutionaries this was not an idealistic approach as in received help from Armenians living the case of public opinion, but a realistic inside Iran and enabled the one. Ali Pasa, the chief policy-maker of revolutionaries to cross the border before the time, explains the approach in the and after their raids, allegedly with the following terms: consent of the Iranian authorities.(15) The second and more significant I do not deny that I really desire to problem was the Shi’i threat emanating win over and make friends of the from Iraq.