Notes Introduction 1. Adolf Hitler, Hitler’s Table Talk, 1941–1944, trans. Norman Cameron and R. H. Stevens, H. R. Trevor-Roper (eds), (New York: Enigma Books, 2008), 17 October 1941 and 8 August 1942, pp. 55, 469. 2. Quoted in Ian Kershaw, Fateful Choices: Ten Decisions That Changed the World, 1940–1941 (New York: The Penguin Press, 2007), p. 387. 3. Quoted in Ian Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945: Nemesis (New York: W.W. Norton, 2000), pp. 434–5. 4. Norman Rich, ‘Hitler’s Foreign Policy’, in Gordon Martel (ed.), The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered: The A.J.P. Taylor Debate After Twenty-Five Years (Boston, MA: Allen & Unwin, 1986), pp. 119–36 (p. 136). 5. Quoted in Ann Curthoys and John Docker, ‘Genocide: Definitions, Ques- tions, Settler Colonies’, Aboriginal History, Vol. 25 (2001), pp. 1–15 (n. 50, p. 14). 6. Ward Churchill, Struggle for the Land: Indigenous Resistance to Genocide, Ecocide and Expropriation in Contemporary North America (Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 1993), p. 203. 7. Robert Cribb, ‘Genocide in the Non-Western World: Implications for Holo- caust Studies’, in S. L. B. Jensen (ed.), Genocide: Cases, Comparisons and Con- temporary Debates (Copenhagen: Danish Centre for Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 2003), pp. 123–40 (p. 137). 8. Robert Melson, Revolution and Genocide: On the Origins of the Armenian Genocide and the Holocaust (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992), pp. 188–9. 9. Robert Melson, ‘Problems in the Comparison of the Armenian Genocide and the Holocaust: Definitions, Typologies, Theories, and Fallacies’, in Larry V. Thompson (ed.), Lessons and Legacies IV: Reflections on Religion, Justice, Sexuality, and Genocide (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2003), pp. 24–38 (p. 35). 10. Yehuda Bauer, ‘Holocaust and Genocide: Some Comparisons’, in Peter Hayes (ed.), Lessons and Legacies: The Meaning of the Holocaust in a Changing World (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1991), pp. 36–46 (p. 44). 11. Robert Melson, ‘Response to Professor Dadrian’s Review’, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Vol. 8, No. 3 (1994), p. 416. 12. For the purposes of this book, the term ‘patterns’ refers to recurring empir- ical patterns of events in both the ‘American West’ and the ‘Nazi East’; the term ‘logics’ refers to ways of thinking, beliefs, and attitudes (conscious and unconscious) held by political elites and ‘ordinary’ citizens, in both historical contexts, that influenced behaviour and decisions; and the term ‘patholo- gies’ refers to values and patterns of behaviour displayed by political elites and ‘ordinary’ citizens in both historical contexts. 219 220 Notes 13. The term ‘out-group’ is Michael Mann’s. According to Mann, ethnic con- flict often breaks out when a ‘dominant group’ seeks to rid itself of an ethnic ‘out-group’ from its community or from a territory that the ‘domi- nant group’ defines as its own (usually by violent means such as repression, coercion, or physical violence). See the relevant discussion in Michael Mann, The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), pp. 10–18. 14. Walter Nugent, ‘Comparing Wests and Frontiers’, in Clyde A. Milner II, Carol A. O’Connor, and Martha A. Sandweiss (eds), The Oxford History of the American West (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 803–33 (p. 803). 15. Robert V. Hine and John Mack Faragher, The American West: A New Interpretative History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), p. 11. 16. Colin G. Calloway, OneVastWinterCount:TheNativeAmericanWestBefore Lewis and Clark (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2003), p. 2. 17. Vejas Gabriel Liulevicius, The German Myth of the East: 1800 to the Present (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 2. 18. Elizabeth Harvey, Women and the Nazi East: Agents and Witnesses of German- ization (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003), p. 20. 19. Karl Jacoby, Shadows at Dawn: A Borderlands Massacre and the Violence of History (New York: The Penguin Press, 2008), p. 2. 20. Ned Blackhawk, Violence Over the Land: Indians and Empires in the Early American West (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), p. 3. 21. Brenden Rensink, ‘The Sand Creek Phenomenon: The Complexity and Dif- ficulty of Undertaking a Comparative Study of Genocide vis-a-vis the North American West’, Genocide Studies and Prevention, Vol. 4, No. 1 (2009), pp. 9–27 (p. 19). 22. Liulevicius, The German Myth of the East,p.7. 23. For an excellent collection of essays on how comparative history can stim- ulate fresh historical thinking, see Deborah Cohen and Maura O’Connor (eds), Comparison and History: Europe in Cross-National Perspective (New York: Routledge, 2004). 24. Given the ‘general hybridity’ of war and genocide, Shaw observes, the phe- nomenon of ‘genocidal war’ is ‘probably the most common form of genocide and a very common form of war’. Italics are Shaw’s. Martin Shaw, ‘The Gen- eral Hybridity of War and Genocide’, Journal of Genocide Research,Vol.9, No. 3 (2007), pp. 461–73 (p. 462). Part I Continental Imperialism 1. Charles S. Maier, Among Empires: American Ascendancy and Its Predecessors (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), pp. 7, 24–5. 2. Stephen Howe, ‘Empire’, in William A. Darity, Jr. (ed.), International Encyclope- dia of the Social Sciences, 2nd ed., 9 Vols. (New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2008), Vol. 2, pp. 574–7 (pp. 574–5). 3. Sudipta Sen, ‘Imperialism’, in Darity (ed.), International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, Vol. 3, pp. 586–9 (p. 586). 4. Alexander Laban Hinton, ‘The Dark Side of Modernity: Toward an Anthropol- ogy of Genocide’, in Alexander Laban Hinton (ed.), Annihilating Difference: The Notes 221 Anthropology of Genocide (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2002), pp. 1–40 (p. 14). 5. Patrick Wolfe, ‘Land, Labor, and Difference: Elementary Structures of Race’, The American Historical Review, Vol. 106, No. 3 (2001), pp. 866–905 (p. 894). 6. Eric D. Weitz, A Century of Genocide: Utopias of Race and Nation (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003), p. 49. 7. Audrey Smedley, Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1999 [1993]), pp. xi, 72; italics in the original. 8. Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, Worse Than War: Genocide, Eliminationism, and the Ongoing Assault on Humanity (New York: PublicAffairs, 2009), p. 319. 9. Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1966 [1951]), pp. 223–4, 232–3, 238. 1 Empire: National Projects of ‘Space’ and ‘Race’ 1. William Earl Weeks, Building the Continental Empire: American Expansion from the Revolution to the Civil War (Chicago, IL: Ivan R. Dee, 1996), p. ix. 2. Walter Nugent, Habits of Empire: A History of American Expansionism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008), p. xiii. Importantly, Nugent’s history of ‘American empire’ (emphasizing the period 1782–1853) ties together the diplomatic and military history of the nation’s territorial acquisitions with occupation, displacement, and settlement in the ‘American West’ (themes previously treated separately by most, if not all, historians of Early America). For a study which links Indian policy and national west- ward expansion, emphasizing the role of the federal government in both, see Stephen J. Rockwell, Indian Affairs and the Administrative State in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010). 3. For an insightful collection of essays on Eastern Europe as Germany’s true ‘colonial’ empire, see Robert L. Nelson (ed.), Germans, Poland, and Colonial Expansion to the East: 1850 to the Present (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009). 4. Alan E. Steinweis, ‘Eastern Europe and the Notion of the “Frontier” in Germany to 1945’, Yearbook of European Studies, Vol. 13 (1999), pp. 56–69 (p. 66). 5. For a recent interpretation of the Manifest Destiny ideology, which empha- sizes its strong religious component (as derived from Puritan theology), see Anders Stephanson, Manifest Destiny: American Expansion and the Empire of Right (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995). 6. Quoted in Stephanson, Manifest Destiny, p. xii. 7. Richard W. Van Alstyne, The Rising American Empire (New York: W. W. Norton, 1974), p. vii. 8. Bruce Lenman, Britain’s Colonial Wars, 1688–1783 (Harlow: Longman, 2001), p. 230. 9. Colin G. Calloway, The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), p. xv. 10. Alan Taylor, ‘Land and Liberty on the Post-Revolutionary Frontier’, in David Thomas Konig (ed.), Devising Liberty: Preserving and Creating Freedom in 222 Notes the New American Republic (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995), pp. 81–108 (p. 82). 11. Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 428. 12. Taylor, ‘Land and Liberty’, p. 85. 13. For a full and useful discussion of these ideologies, see Woodruff D. Smith, The Ideological Origins of Nazi Imperialism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986). 14. Edgar Feuchtwanger, Imperial Germany 1850–1918 (London: Routledge, 2001), pp. 115–16. 15. Shelley Baranowski, Nazi Empire: German Colonialism and Imperialism from Bismarck to Hitler (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 45. 16. Smith, The Ideological Origins of Nazi Imperialism, pp. 100–1. 17. Richard Weikart, From Darwin to Hitler: Evolutionary Ethics, Eugenics, and Racism in Germany (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), pp. 192–4. 18. David Thomas Murphy, The Heroic Earth: Geopolitical Thought in Weimar Germany, 1918–1933 (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1997), p. 2. 19. Quoted in Steinweis, ‘Eastern Europe’, p. 61. 20. David Blackbourn, ‘The Conquest of Nature and the Mystique of the Eastern Frontier in Nazi Germany’, in Nelson (ed.), Germans, Poland, and Colonial Expansion to the East, pp. 141–70 (pp. 151–2). 21. Steinweis, ‘Eastern Europe’, pp. 57, 61. For more on the dialogue between Ratzel and Turner, see Jens-Uwe Guettel, ‘From the Frontier to German South-West Africa: German Colonialism, Indians, and American Westward Expansion’, Modern Intellectual History, Vol.