Lee Marsden. Supervisors: Matthias Benzer, Lorna Warren Economic Martyrs and Moralised Others: Mass Media Constructions of Social Class in the ‘Age of Austerity’ Lee Marsden A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Sheffield Department of Sociological Studies Date: 20 September 2020 1 Lee Marsden. Supervisors: Matthias Benzer, Lorna Warren Declaration I, the author, confirm that the Thesis is my own work. I am aware of the University’s Guidance on the Use of Unfair Means (www.sheffield.ac.uk/ssid/unfair-means). This work has not previously been presented for an award at this, or any other, university. 2 Lee Marsden. Supervisors: Matthias Benzer, Lorna Warren “If public attitudes are informed by inaccurate, ideological and stigmatising representations of the poor, then policies preferred by the public (and political elites) are unlikely to seek to tackle the structural causes of inequality [...] In essence, this works to ensure that the working / underclass are positioned in a top-down society created for them, and they are expected to involve themselves in that society under those prearranged social constructs” (Power, 2011 p3). “For a long time the quarry was full of snowdrifts and nothing could be done. Some progress was made in the dry frosty weather that followed, but it was cruel work, and the animals could not feel so hopeful about it as they had felt before. They were always cold, and usually hungry as well. Only Boxer and Clover never lost heart. Squealer made excellent speeches on the joy of service and the dignity of labour, but the other animals found more inspiration in Boxer's strength and his never-failing cry of "I will work harder!” (George Orwell: Animal farm, 1945 p80) 3 Lee Marsden. Supervisors: Matthias Benzer, Lorna Warren Acknowledgements First of all I would like to say a big thank you to my supervisors, Matthias Benzer and Lorna Warren. Their combined knowledge, wisdom, and at times patience have been instrumental in the course of steering this project from an initial idea, through to a feasible study, and finally a finished thesis. Their feedback has always been constructive (and hugely helpful), and when I have doubted myself they have always managed to instil the confidence needed to see this through to the end. Nothing can really prepare you for how much hard work goes into completing a PhD, but I appreciate how much harder it would have been were it not for the excellent guidance they have provided throughout. I would also like thank my examiners, Zoe Irving and Alex Dennis, not only for their excellent feedback, but also for making the viva a relaxing and enjoyable experience (despite my nerves!). I would like to thank my fiancée, Lisa, for everything over the last few years, but in particular for picking up the slack on the home front over the last few months, which I can safely say have been the busiest of my life! I would also like to thank my mum, Helen, for always being there, without fail, when I have needed her, and for the countless life lessons she has taught me. A special thanks to my children, Ella, Tyler, and Jacob, not only for being so patient and understanding over these last few months, but also for occasionally being a welcome distraction. The time we spend together, and our little projects and adventures are always a welcome break from ‘real life’ (and you know I’m the fourth kid at heart!). Thanks also to (in no particular order), Greg, Jim, Paul, Amy, Jade, and Scotty. 4 Lee Marsden. Supervisors: Matthias Benzer, Lorna Warren Abstract This study critically explores media constructions of social class within the context of austerity, focusing on the link between class and inequality. Data were drawn from 240 newspaper articles (2010-2016) covering 6 major topics: emergency budget, welfare reform, workfare, bedroom tax, food banks, and zero-hour contracts. Thematic analysis of ideological debate, policy enactment, and policy impact established key patterns of class construction. Selected newspaper extracts were then analysed in greater depth, following the principles of critical discourse analysis, with the aim of establishing how class is constructed, and also what operative function media constructions of class may perform. Findings show the portrayal of class through the frame of economic crisis, with an emphasis on notions of ‘unavoidable scarcity’ (due to market forces), ‘necessary austerity’, and the reigning in of ‘wasteful’ spending. Implied in this pro-austerity stance is a ‘moral divide’ between an exploitative underclass and the vague ‘ordinary people’ - the (classless) ‘rest of us’ - which is used to justify punitive policies and to mask their effects. Alongside this, a nostalgic idealised working class identity is engendered, which hyper-visualises the ‘selfless sense of duty’ to which ‘we’ should aspire. However, as the impacts of austerity become more apparent, a more critical ‘alternative’ discourse emerges, placing issues of structural inequality - the ‘struggle’ inherent to social class - back on the agenda. Concomitantly, class begins to be constructed as an ‘anxious concept’; the potential to fall down the ‘slippery slope’ to precarity open to all. The thesis concludes by suggesting that the position of the commercial media within the competitive capitalist system pre-disposes them towards an elite-serving ideological stance. As this stance comes into conflict with the social realities of austerity, its legitimacy becomes strained, leading to challenges from sources including the media themselves. 5 Lee Marsden. Supervisors: Matthias Benzer, Lorna Warren Table of Contents Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. 4 Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... 5 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 10 2. Literature Review .............................................................................................................. 19 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 19 2.2 The Social Context ......................................................................................................... 21 2.3 Social Class .................................................................................................................... 24 2.3.1 Depictions of Social Class ....................................................................................... 28 2.4 Media Influence and Media Bias ................................................................................... 38 2.4.1 Supply-Side Media Bias ......................................................................................... 40 2.4.2 Demand-side Media bias ........................................................................................ 42 2.5 Critical Discourse Analysis ........................................................................................... 44 3. Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 52 3.1 Research Aims ............................................................................................................... 52 3.2 Theoretical Perspective ................................................................................................. 53 3.3 The Social Problem ....................................................................................................... 54 3.4 Method .......................................................................................................................... 55 3.4.1 Data Collection ....................................................................................................... 55 3.4.2 Thematic Analysis .................................................................................................. 58 3.4.3 Discourse Analysis ................................................................................................. 61 3.5 Limitations .................................................................................................................... 63 4. Social Class and Austerity ‘In Theory’: A Discourse Analysis of Media Coverage of the Emergency Budget and Welfare Reform ...................................................................... 67 6 Lee Marsden. Supervisors: Matthias Benzer, Lorna Warren 4.1 Introduction: Austerity and the Importance of Class Construction ............................... 67 4.2 Themes .......................................................................................................................... 68 4.2.1 Necessity ................................................................................................................. 68 4.2.2 Fairness ................................................................................................................... 70 4.2.3 A ‘Broken’ Welfare State ....................................................................................... 71 4.2.4 Ordinary Hardworking People ............................................................................... 75 4.3 Discourse Analysis ........................................................................................................