Copyright By Tricia Marie Jokerst August 2015 The Dissertation Committee for Tricia Marie Jokerst certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: Perceptions of Urban School Administrators and General and Special Education Teachers about the Overrepresentation of African American Males in Special Education Committee: Barbara L. Pazey, Supervisor Andrea Flower James Schaller Patricia Somers Anthony L. Brown Perceptions of Urban School Administrators and General and Special Education Teachers about the Overrepresentation of African American Males in Special Education by Tricia Marie Jokerst, B.A.; B.A.; M.Ed. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas in Austin In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas in Austin August 2015 Dedication I would like to dedicate this study to the educator participants who took time out of their busy lives to make this study possible. These educators represent the best of all those involved in the education system. They relentlessly give their all every day to provide the at-risk student population with positive academic experiences by forging strong healthy relationships with their students while maintaining a high level of content mastery. Their passion for imparting knowledge and desire for social justice rang loud and clear throughout the interviews. Working and talking with these educators gave me a renewed hope that our education system can be changed. These educators contributed information and perspectives that have not been previously addressed and provided valuable insight. They were open and candid and shared their personal stories, which deeply enriched the study. I would like to make a special dedication to one of the general education teachers who passed away shortly after participating in this study. He was a husband, a father of two, and a phenomenal teacher. He will be missed by his family, friends, students, colleagues, and anyone else who had the good fortune of knowing him. Acknowledgement The past five years have been the best of times and the worst of times. Throughout the journey culminating in this dissertation, I have received personal and professional support without which I would not be writing this acknowledgement. Many people have contributed to my success and deserve recognition. The first thank you must be extended to my significant other, Dave, who has often been the recipient of my stress and frustration during the dissertation process but remained my rock and voice of reason. I would like to recognize and thank Dr. Pazey for her support and her contribution to my work as well as her patience and perseverance with my moods. Dr. Flower was a significant contributor to my academic success as well. She served as my mentor and advisor during the first four years of my doctoral program and continued her support as one of my dissertation committee members. Her assistance and contributions with the synthesis that preceded and spawned this study was much appreciated. I could not have gotten this far without these three people. Many others have also contributed to the successful completion of this study. My family, friends, and colleagues have unconditionally supported me personally and in my professional endeavor. I could not possibly name all of them. Thank you again to everyone. v PERCEPTIONS OF URBAN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS AND GENERAL AND SPECIAL EDUCATION TEACHERS ABOUT THE OVERREPRESENTATION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN MALES IN SPECIAL EDUCATION Tricia Marie Jokerst, Ph.D. The University of Texas at Austin, 2015 Supervisor: Barbara Pazey The overrepresentation of African American (AA) males in special education is not a new problem. In 1968, Lloyd Dunn recognized that economically disadvantaged students and students of color were overrepresented in the mental retardation (MR) category of special education. Since 1970, the pattern of disproportionality in special education categories of MR and serious emotional disturbance (SED) has continued and, more recently, the trend has been highlighted as a significant problem in special education that needs immediate attention. The number of minority students identified according to the special education category of Other Health Impairment (OHI) has also increased. Notably, a disproportionate number of AA males have been diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The crux of the problem whereby AA students have been placed into special education programs—particularly in the categories of MR or Intellectual Disability (ID), Emotional/Behavior Disorder (EBD), and ADHD—has led to vi a host of negative outcomes that are strongly correlated to the special education membership of AA males. Using a qualitative research design, this study sought to obtain the first-hand perspectives of educators involved in special education regarding the overrepresentation of AA males in special education. Individual interviews and focus groups were conducted with campus administrators and general and special education teachers. Participants were asked to give their perspectives regarding the following: What factors are responsible for causing the overrepresentation of AA males in special education? Why does the problem persist? How can the problem be resolved? Thomas’ (2011) constant comparative method was used as means for analysis and to elicit themes from the data. Participants identified the causes contributing to the overrepresentation of AA males in special education as racism, poverty, systemic issues, and external forces and named problematic belief systems, failed funding, and limiting legislation as reasons why the problem persists. As potential solutions to the problem, they called for changes to teacher and administrator preparation and professional development programs, educators’ instructional practices, the educational system, the AA community, and the American public. vii Table of Contents List of Tables ..……………………………………………………………..…………..xvii List of Figures…………………………………...………………………………..……xviii Chapter 1: Introduction……………………………………………………………………1 Context of the Problem………………………………………………………..…..3 Statement of the Problem……………………………………………………….…5 Theoretical Framework…………………………………………………..………..6 Intersectionality……………………………………………………………………6 Purpose of the Study………………………………………………………………8 Research Questions………………………………………………..………………9 Definitions of Terms…………………………………………………………..…10 Rationale……………………………………………………………………..…..23 Assumptions……………………………………………………………………...24 Significance of the Study……………………………………………………...…24 Organization of the Study………………………………………………..………25 Chapter 2: Literature Review……………………….……………………………………27 Overview of Overrepresentation…………………………………………………28 Review of Research…………………………………………..………………….38 Theoretical Framework………….………………………………….……………45 Intersectionality………………….…………………………………….…………45 The Wicked Problem…………………………………………...………..46 The Urban Experience….…………………………………………..……47 Recommendations for Future Research…………….…………………………....50 Discussion………………………….………………………………………….…51 Empirical Research………………………………………………………52 Cultural Conflict……………………………………………………...….53 An Expanded Perspective……………………………………………..…55 Conclusion………………………………………………...……………………..56 Chapter 3: Methodology…………………………………………………………………59 Rationale…………………………………………………………………………59 Research Method, Design, and Data Analysis…………………………………...60 Participants…………………………………………………….…………64 Selection Criteria…………………………………………………….…..66 Data Analysis………………………………………….…………………66 Reliability and Validity…………………………………..………………75 Interrater Reliability…………………………………..………….75 Validation…………………………………………………….…..76 Internal Validation………………………………...……..76 External Validation…………………………………..…..77 Qualitative Indicators………………………………………...…………..77 Interviews…………………………………………….…………..77 Data Analysis and Reporting Results……………………...…….79 viii Limitations……………………………………………………………………….79 Participants………………………………………………………………….……79 Researcher…………………………………………………..……………………80 Potential Risks and Benefits…………………………………………………..…81 Chapter Summary…………………………………….………………………….81 Chapter 4: Results………………………………………………………..………………83 Overview of Study Participants………………………………………...………..84 Ethnicity………………………………….………………………………………85 Gender……………………………………………………………………………86 Academic Core Certification…………………………………………….86 Years of Experience……………………………………………..……….87 Educator Preparation………………….………………….………………87 Participant Codes……………………………………….………………………..88 Final Themes and Definitions………………………………………..…………..90 Research Question One Final Themes………………...…………………91 Racism……………………………………..……………………..91 Poverty…………………...………………………………………92 Systemic Issues…………………………………………………..92 External Forces………………………………………..…………92 Research Question Two Final Themes…………………………….…….93 Problematic Belief Systems………………..…………….………93 Failed Funding…………………………………………..……….94 Limiting Legislation………………………….……………….….94 Research Question Three Final Themes…………………………………94 Essential Educator Changes………………………………….…..95 Necessary Systemic Changes……………………………….……95 Vital African American Action……………….…………….……95 Imperative Shift in Public Perception…………….………...……95 Research Question One Summary……………………………….………………96 Administrators………………………………………………….………..97 Ethnicity Comparison………………………………...………….98 Gender Comparison……………………………….……………..99 General Education Teachers…………………………………….……….99 Ethnicity Comparison…………………………………………....99 Gender Comparison……………………………...……………..100 Special Education Teachers…………………………………...……..…100 Ethnicity