THE SADDLE ISLAND CEMETERY: A STUDY OF WHALERS AT A SIXTEENTH-CENTURY BASQUE WHALING STATION IN RED BAY, LABRADOR by © Lori M. White A thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Arts Memorial University of Newfoundland May 2015 St. John’s Newfoundland ABSTRACT This thesis is a study of burial patterning and osteological data for 63 grave features located in the sixteenth-century cemetery on Saddle Island, Red Bay, Labrador. Over 130 individuals were buried on Saddle Island during the Basque whaling enterprise that would see thousands of men pursue whales to collect train oil for European markets for more than 50 years along the south coast of Labrador. These remains were excavated in the early 1980s and have been largely unstudied until this time. This thesis examines the human skeletal remains, archaeological contexts, and burial artefacts to help reconstruct past biological, cultural, and historical conditions. The study of the human remains and mortuary behavior from Saddle Island provides personal stories of life and death of a sixteenth-century whaler and offers us a rare and unique opportunity to understand the men who sailed annually from the Basque Country to hunt whales to light the streets of Europe. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My thesis is the result of the generous support and assistance I received from many friends, colleagues, and organizations. First and foremost I would like to thank my thesis supervisors, Dr. Sonja Jerkic for setting me on the right path, and Dr. Lisa Rankin for keeping me on that path. I cannot possibly express how much I appreciate the patience and encouragement you generously provided me over the years. From the bottom of my heart, thank you. I owe a huge debt of gratitude to Dr. James Tuck for sharing his incredible wealth of knowledge, time, notes, and slides with me. Much of my understanding of the Red Bay excavations and field conditions came about during early morning coffee sessions with Dr. Tuck, Steve Mills, and the late Dr. Ralph Pastore, who regaled me with stories of their combined years spent working in Red Bay. At times during my research it seemed as though I was the only person in the world who didn’t dig on Saddle Island and I want to thank the dozens of Red Bay crewmembers who shared their stories of excavating the cemetery. In particular, I want to thank Ken Reynolds and Delphina Mercer of the Provincial Archeology Office for sharing their extensive knowledge of the site. During my graduate studies I was fortunate to receive funding that helped to support my research: a graduate fellowship from the Newfoundland Archaeological Heritage Outreach Program, and a research grant from the J.R. Smallwood Foundation for Newfoundland & Labrador Studies. iii My research on the Saddle Island collection was aided by the brilliant curatorial and collections staff at the Provincial Museum of Newfoundland and Labrador: Elaine Anton and Lori Temple; and at the Department of Archaeology, Memorial University: Ellen Foulkes, Gillian Noseworthy, and Maria Lear. Combined, you ladies could rule the world. Special thanks go to Cindy Gibbons of Red Bay NHS, Parks Canada, and to Peter Bruce who kindly shared with me his Red Bay site maps. My gratitude goes to Judy Logan at the Canadian Conservation Institute who helped explain the field treatments used on the bones, and to Donna Teasdale for helping me continue the collections care. A huge thank you to my fellow graduate comrades: Blair Temple, Barbara Leskovec, Ed Eastaugh, Henry Cary, Michelle MacCarthy, and Scott Buchanan, who kept it interesting and a little crazy; and later, the support and friendship of my archaeology cohorts Corey Hutchings, Maria Lear, Donna Teasdale, Gillian Noseworthy, Amelia Fay, and Catherine Jalbert. To my friends Elaine Anton, John Erwin, Amanda Crompton, and Marc Bolli who have been a family to me through the good and the bad–thank you for always keeping my glass not just half-full, but filled to the brim! Finally, my heartfelt thanks go to Erika Laanela: for your unwavering friendship that saved me, many a day. I owe you so much. And most of all, to Tim Rast: for your love and support but also for your mad mapping skills. Thank you for all the time and patience you put into helping me create the maps I imagined in my head. I could never have finished this thesis without you. I am so lucky to have you by my side. iv Table of Contents ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ................................................................................................................. v List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... xi List of Tables ................................................................................................................... xiii List of Appendices ............................................................................................................ xiv Chapter 1 Introduction and Objectives of Research ....................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Relevance of Research .......................................................................................... 2 1.3 The Archaeology ................................................................................................... 2 1.4 Objectives of Research .......................................................................................... 6 Chapter 2 Historical Background and Documentary Evidence ...................................... 9 2.1 Physical Environment ........................................................................................... 9 2.2 Demographics (c. 9000 B.P. – 1630s) ................................................................. 14 2.2.1 Aboriginal Groups ....................................................................................... 14 2.2.2 Early Europeans ........................................................................................... 15 2.3 The Basques and Whaling ................................................................................... 16 2.4 Whaling in Labrador ........................................................................................... 19 v Chapter 3 The Site and Context of Discovery .............................................................. 27 3.1 The Site ............................................................................................................... 27 3.2 Excavations ......................................................................................................... 28 3.2.1 The Cemetery ............................................................................................... 30 3.2.2 Human Remains Outside the Cemetery ....................................................... 32 3.3 Basque Whaling Context ..................................................................................... 33 Chapter 4 Whaling Populations and Previous Research .............................................. 35 4.1 Seventeenth and Eighteenth-Century Whaling .................................................... 36 4.2 Biological Anthropology of Seventeenth and Eighteenth-Century Whaling Populations ..................................................................................................................... 37 4.3 Pathological Conditions Associated with Whaling Occupations ........................ 39 4.4 Previous Research on the Saddle Island Cemetery Collection ........................... 41 Chapter 5 Materials and Methodology ......................................................................... 45 5.1 The Excavation and Finds ................................................................................... 46 5.2 Methodology ....................................................................................................... 47 5.2.1 Burial Practices and Principles of Interment................................................ 47 5.2.2 Osteology ..................................................................................................... 49 5.2.2.1 Number of Individuals ............................................................................. 49 5.2.2.2 Sex ............................................................................................................ 50 5.2.2.3 Age ........................................................................................................... 52 vi 5.2.2.4 Stature ....................................................................................................... 53 5.2.2.5 Ancestry ................................................................................................... 53 5.2.2.6 Pathological Conditions ........................................................................... 54 5.2.2.7 Occupational Stress Indicators ................................................................. 55 Chapter 6 Burial Archaeology and Mortuary Practices ................................................ 57 6.1 Recording the Grave ...........................................................................................