1 Catholicism, Protestantism and Secularism in Shakespeare and English/American Literary Culture * On “Catholic,” see 1838. ** On “Protestant,” see 1529. On “Puritan,” see 1573 Including American Contexts Continental Contexts Irish Contexts Home Page: Shakespeare and Religion Chronology by Dennis Taylor, Boston College Unedited notes, Revised 26 Sept. 2011 **40?** By tradition, Joseph of Arimathea led Christian hermits to found abbey at Glastonbury, at foot of Tor hill in Somersetshire. English Protestant historians (i.e. Camden in Remains (“The true Christian Religion was planted heere most auntiently by Joseph of Arimathia … yea by Saint Peter and Saint Paul …”); Foxe in Acts (“All this while about the space of foure hundred yeares, Religion remayned in Britayne uncorrupt … till about the comming of Austen and of hys companions from Rome, many of the sayd Britayne preachers were slayn by the Saxons”); Harrison in Holinshed (Description of Britaine, prefixed to Holinshed’s Chronicles: how Philip the Apostle sent Joseph of Arimathea to the Britons … [then Augustine and his monks] drowned altogether in the pits of error digged up by Antichrist”); argued that Joseph founded a true Christianity, established as the national religion by Lucius in 177; to be corrupted by the arrival of Augustine and his monks (see 597). [but see 314 AD in answer to this myth] See Spenser, FQ 2.10.53: … and after him good Lucius, That first received Christianitie, The sacred pledge of Christes Evangely; Yet true it is, that long before that day Hither came Joseph of Arimathy, Who brought with him the holy grayle, (they say) And preacht the truth, but since it greatly did decay. **43** Conquest of England by Emperor Claudius. **177** Athenagoras, “Plea for the Christians,” c. 177, to Marcus Aurelius: Christians should have right to live unmolested like other philosophical dissidents. **200** Clement of Alexandria, Stromateis, c. 200, classical philosophy is partial revelation to Greeks of divine truth; thus faith and knowledge together give knowledge of God. **364** Basil, “Against Eunomius,” c. 364, all statements about God are by analogy; Basil, Letters, c. 357-9, monastic life provides solitude where man through contemplation and deeds, can make his life worthy to God. **220** Origen, “On First Principles,” c. 220-230, scripture must be interpreted allegorically; thus Augustine, Confessions 399-401 **245** Origen, “Contra Celsum,” c. 245-50, Christians, compatible with much classical thought, can be loyal to Roman government, but government must follow natural law. **313** Edict of Milan by emperor Constantine, granting toleration to Christianity. Constantine had conquered his rival in 312, “in hoc signo vincis.” He convened the council of Nicaea (325) to 2 deal with Arianism, moved the capital to Byzantium which he renamed Constantinople, outlawed paganism there, divided the empire at death, providing for his three surviving sons, and some others, with resultant wars between the three brothers. **314** British bishops attend Council of Arles in Gaul; thus Britian fully part of the Catholic system. **325** Eusebius, The History of the Church from Christ to Constantine (c. 325), celebrating the new Christendom, with its union of chuch and state. **356** Antony of the desert dies at age 105. **400** 400-700 A.D., so called “Dark Ages,” with Rome losing grip on Europe, and Germanic tribes waging war. **410** Roman legions recalled from England. **432** St. Patrick in Ireland. Palladius, first bishop, had been sent in 431 to combat Pelagianism in alreadly existing body of Christians. **434** St. Vincent of Lèrin, “A Comminatory,” opinion of whole body of church is to be preferred to a dissenting part (“Quod ubique, quod semper, quod ad omnibus”); views of antiquity to be given priority over novel views. **451** Council of Chalcedon, Christ one person in two natures, fully part of Trinity, as well as fully human. For Protestants “the last general council of the Church to make reliable decisions about doctrine in accordance with the core doctrines proclaimed in scripture” (MacCulloch). **500** Dionysius the Pseudo-Areopagite, “The Mystical Theology,” c. 500, via negativa is way of going beyond all sight and knowledge to that which is beyond all existent things. **506** Clovis unites Frankish tribes, to become most dominant force; eventually converts to Christianity. **520** St. Finnian founds Clonard monastery, parent of many others. In 563 St. Columba leads monks to Iona, beginning of great missionary effort. **528** Benedict founds his monastery at Monte Cassino, c. 528-9, destroyed by Lombards in c. 568, refounded 720. **597** Pope Gregory sends Augustine of Canterbury and forty monks to England; in 602, Augustine founded the see at Canterbury. This Roman church became reconciled uneasily with earlier British or Celtic church at Synod of Whitby in 664. **657** Caedmon’s Hymn (657-80). **705** Aldhelm of Malmesbury, great scholar monk, De Laude virginitatis sive de virginitate sanctorum (c. 705). **719** St. Boniface, from Devon, sent by Pope Gegory II on mission to Germanic lands, “had a deeper influence on the history of Europe than any other Englishman who ever lived” (Dawson, Making of Europe); prepared for the unification under Charlemagne. Cited as example of Britain’s early international Catholicism by E. Jones (1998). **731** Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica (Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation), to be trans. by King Alfred (887-92). Bede reinforced the idea of Englishness begun by Pope Gregory’s pun on Angles in 597. **771** Charlemagne becomes king of the Franks; crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III in 800. Alcuin would write Charlemagne: “If many are infected by your aims, a new Athens will be created in France, nay, an Athens finer than the old, for ours, ennobled by the teachings of Christ, will surpass all the wisdom of the Academy.” Alcuin began great age of copying Latin manuscripts, both classical and patristic. First record of Norse invasions, establishing first cities of Dublin, Waterford, Limerick.; but Brian Boru at Clontarf in 1014 broke their power, followed by great 150 years of **795** religion, literature, art. **796** Alcuin of York: from 796 until his death, abbot of the great monastery of St. Martin of Tours monastery, center of learning, adviser to Charlemagne, inspired middle period of Carolingian renaissance. He argued, “Faith is a free act of the will, not a forced act,” and 3 influenced Charlemagne to abolish the death penalty for paganism in 797. **890** King Alfred at height of power, recognized over most of England. **960** Monastic Revival (960-88). In 910, the abbey of Cluny was founded, by 1050 the hub of many monasteries. **1000** Leif Erikson lands (c. 1000) on what seems to be Newfoundland; given mission by King of Norway: “thither thou shalt go upon my errand to proclaim Christianity [i.e. Catholicism] there”, acc. to “oldest document of American history,” ca. 1310- **1043** Reign of Edward the Confessor (1043-66). **1054** Great Schism between Catholic and Eastern Orthdox churches, formalized in 1439; attempted resolutions. Less radical than the Reformation, because did not radically disrupt the conventional understanding of the Christian sacred, pace the iconoclasm controversy. OED: “‘Catholic’ was assumed as its descriptive epithet by the Western or Latin Church, as ‘Orthodox’ was by the Eastern or Greek.” **1066** Norman invasion by William the Conqueror, victory at Battle of Hastings. Made England tri- lingual and even more Europeanized. **1073** Gregory VII becomes pope (1073-85); reformed abuses, consolidated power of papacy against king; excommunicated and humiliated Henry IV, German king, at Canossa in 1077; outlawed clerical marriage and concubinage; imposed celibacy on clergy. Some Protestants see this as beginning of anti-Christ church. Falstaff’s “Turk Gregory never did such deeds in arms as I have done this day” may conflate the medieval power of Gregory VII, the ferocity of Gregory VIII (1572- 85) against Elizabeth, and also the papal support by Pius V of the victory over the Turks at Lepanto, the year before Gregory VIII became pope. **1095** First Crusade (1095-99), in response to Muslims invading Jerusalmen and southern Spain; Pope Urban II offers plenary indulgence, first such use. Last crusade ended 1291. **1127** Bernard founds monastery at Clairvaux out of which came 68 houses. Preached Second Crusade in 1146. Author of “On the Love of God” (c. 1127), “On Grace and Free Will” (c. 1127), etc. **1127** Hugh of St. Victor, “Didascalion Concerning Pursuit of Learning,” c. 1127, both secular and religious learning is part of wisdom and lead to God, and human perfection; Scripture may have threefold meaning, historical (literal) allegorical (one thing mean another), and tropological (moral). **1130** Geoffrey of Monmouth, Historia Regum Britannniae (c. 1130-6): kings of England descended from Brutus (grandson of Aeneas), original conqueror of Albion, then infested with giants; stories of King Lear, Cymbeline, Arthur and Round Table; source of Layamon’s Brut (c. 1200). Geoffrey’s celebration of Britons vs. Romans used nervously (given its a-historicity) by Protestants to point to an uncorrupted early British Christianity. **1140** Beginnings of Gothic architecture in Ile-de-France, with St. Denis (ca.1140) and Chartres Cathedral (ca.1145), built by Abbot Suger. **1155** Henry II of England supposedly (acc. to Cambrensis) receives grant of Ireland from Pope Adrian IV. Conquest by this (Catholic) Anglo-Norman invasion, led by Richard Strongbow, completed by 1171. Beginning of English and Irish conflict, though not yet Catholic-Protestant conflict; thus from now on the “Old English” in Ireland; beginnings of the English Pale. **1170** Thomas à Becket murdered by Henry II's men in Canterbury Cathedral. Eleanor of Aquitaine establishes her cultured court at Poitiers, with courtly love, Chrétien de Troyes, and other artists; encouraged the troubadours, and the beginning of the trouveres. Mother of Richard the Lionhearted, and King John.