University of South Florida Scholar Commons Graduate Theses and Dissertations Graduate School 1-1-2012 Beyond the Backlash: Muslim and Middle Eastern Immigrants' Experiences in America, Ten Years Post-9/11 Gregory J. Mills University of South Florida, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd Part of the American Studies Commons, Feminist, Gender, and Sexuality Studies Commons, and the Sociology Commons Scholar Commons Citation Mills, Gregory J., "Beyond the Backlash: Muslim and Middle Eastern Immigrants' Experiences in America, Ten Years Post-9/11" (2012). Graduate Theses and Dissertations. http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/4166 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at Scholar Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Scholar Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Beyond the Backlash: Muslim and Middle Eastern Immigrants’ Experiences in America, Ten Years Post-9/11 by Gregory J. Mills A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Department of Sociology College of Arts and Sciences University of South Florida Major Professor: Elizabeth Aranda, Ph.D. James C. Cavendish, Ph.D. Will Tyson, Ph.D. Date of Approval: June 1, 2012 Keywords: Immigration, Assimilation, Discrimination, Gender, Ethnic Identity, Islamophobia Copyright © 2012, Gregory J. Mills DEDICATION I dedicate this thesis to my wife, Laura, whose support and patience with me has truly been unrelenting. I also want to dedicate this to the Muslim and Middle Eastern communities of the Tampa Bay area, of whom so many were willing to share with me their incredible stories. AKNOWLEDGEMENTS I want to acknowledge first and foremost the chair of my committee, Dr. Elizabeth Aranda, whose advice and direction throughout this journey has been monumental. This thesis would not be possible without your guidance. I also want to acknowledge the other members of my committee, Drs. Jim Cavendish and Will Tyson, whose thoughtful remarks also greatly improved this thesis. My fellow cohort members, Skyler, Janine, and Adam, provided a brilliant sounding board for conceptual and analytical ideas and also the occasional diversion, which at times is just as necessary. Thanks for the memories; I hope there are many more to come. Lastly, I want to acknowledge my family, whose love and support have always gone far beyond words. Thanks for the constant encouragement, much-needed visits to sunny Florida, and always making home a welcome place to be—all which have led me to the point I am at today. TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. iii Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iv Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2: Historical Contexts and Current Trends ........................................................................ 4 Early Immigrant Trends and Social Consequences ............................................................ 4 Immigration Reform, Conflict, and Identity Crisis ............................................................. 9 Islamophobia in Post-9/11 America .................................................................................. 15 Discrimination in Public Places ............................................................................ 15 Discrimination in the Workplace .......................................................................... 17 Discrimination in Schools ..................................................................................... 19 Post 9/11 Ethnic and Religious Identity Trends ............................................................... 20 Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 28 Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................................... 29 Research Design ................................................................................................................ 29 Sample Description and Participant Recruitment ............................................................. 30 Insider vs. Outsider Status ................................................................................................ 33 Data Analysis .....................................................................................................................36 Chapter 4: Immigrants’ Perceptions of Islamophobia in America: Cultural Hostility and Experiences of Discrimination ...................................................................................................... 39 Muslim Men ...................................................................................................................... 41 Essam .................................................................................................................... 41 Mahir ..................................................................................................................... 44 Siraj ....................................................................................................................... 45 Shamil ....................................................................................................................48 Muslim Women ................................................................................................................ 51 Sabah and Walidah ............................................................................................... 52 Abida, Bahaar, and Taja ........................................................................................ 54 Non-Muslim Middle Easterners ........................................................................................ 61 Chapter 5: Negotiating Post-9/11 America: Patterns of Identity Construction and Religious Individualism among Muslims ..................................................................................... 67 Muslim First ...................................................................................................................... 69 On an Individualized, Progressive Islam .......................................................................... 72 i Iranian vs. Persian ............................................................................................................. 80 Chapter 6: Conclusion................................................................................................................... 85 References Cited ........................................................................................................................... 91 Appendices ...................................................................................................................................100 Appendix A: Letter to Group Leader for Email Listserv ................................................ 101 Appendix B: Interview Questions ................................................................................... 102 ii LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Sample .........................................................................38 iii ABSTRACT In this thesis, I explore the perceived character of Islamophobia in American society, and how Islamophobia is embedded in the everyday lived experiences and identity negotiations of a sample of Middle Eastern immigrants, ten years post-9/11. Data consist of 13 qualitative interviews with first-generation Middle Eastern immigrants, including Muslims, Christians, and those who claim no religion. Findings suggest that perceived discrimination and cultural hostility vary across both gender and religion. Women who cover with the hijab perceive far more discrimination and humiliating experiences than men or women who do not cover in the sample. Iranians also receive extremely poor treatment, especially from border patrol agents in airports, regardless of religion. Overarching themes of identity negotiation include: (1) a Muslim First identity; (2) the individualizing of the Muslim faith through modified religious practices and diverse social networks; and (3) negotiating the Iranian vs. Persian identity. I conclude that while overall trends of discrimination are perceived to be receding from their peaks in the 9/11 backlash; there is a real possibility for sustained hostility towards those who are visibly Muslim, particularly for women, which has implications for trends in identity negotiation. iv Chapter 1 Introduction In 1996, five years before the tragic events of 9/11, esteemed Harvard political scientist Samuel Huntington wrote in his national bestseller, The Clash of the Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order: The underlying problem for the West is not Islamic fundamentalism. It is Islam, a different civilization whose people are convinced of the superiority of their culture and are obsessed with the inferiority of their power. The problem for Islam is not the CIA or the U.S. Department of Defense. It is the West, a different civilization whose people are convinced of the universality of their culture and believe that their superior, if