“THE STREET WAS ONE PLACE WE COULD NOT GO”: THE AMERICAN ARMY AND URBAN COMBAT IN WORLD WAR II EUROPE A Dissertation by JONATHAN ANDREW BEALL Submitted to the Office of Graduate and Professional Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Chair of Committee, Joseph G. Dawson, III Committee Members, James Bradford Roger Reese David Vaught James Burk Head of Department, David Vaught May 2014 Major Subject: History Copyright 2014 Jonathan Andrew Beall ABSTRACT Much has been written about the nature of the United States Army in World War II and the topic of military effectiveness. This dissertation examines how the United States responded to a combat environment, specifically, fighting in built-up areas, that it had not planned to fight within before World War II. By following three infantry divisions, the 1st, 3rd, and 5th Infantry Divisions through their combat in World War II, this dissertation investigates how the Army of the United States fought within the urban setting to see whether the American Army improved and became more effective as the war continued. It argues that the 1st, 3rd, and 5th Infantry Divisions learned and became more proficient at urban combat over time. This dissertation asserts that as these divisions embraced combined-arms operations in general, that is, mastered the coordination of infantry weapons, armor, and artillery into battle, so they applied those lessons to the urban environment. Whereas the American military had neither doctrine nor tradition of urban combat before World War II, combat units learned to develop methods of fighting within towns and cities. Further, the United States Army processed and incorporated these battlefield lessons into military doctrine at a slower rate. The infantry divisions’ combat experience had a greater impact on army doctrine than the doctrine had on the divisions’ warfighting practices. ii DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated in loving memory to my grandfather, Alphonso Aguirre (1913-2010). He had always wanted to be an Aggie. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS One does not undertake a project such as this without getting help along the way. First, I am greatly indebted to my doctoral advisor, Dr. Joseph G. Dawson, for his patience and direction as this dissertation slowly took shape and especially as it competed with my teaching responsibilities. I would also like to thank my committee, Dr. James Bradford, Dr. James Burk, Dr. Roger Reese, and Dr. David Vaught, for their insightful comments, guidance, and support that helped to sharpen this dissertation. Fellow scholars such as Mr. Daniel Champagne, Mr. Jeff Danby, and Dr. John McManus generously gave me unpublished sources that I could not obtain through Interlibrary Loan. Colonel Lou DiMarco, U.S. Army (retired), helped me to frame this dissertation in its early days and then he graciously took time from his schedule to meet with me during my visit to Fort Leavenworth’s Combined Arms Research Library to discuss World War II and urban combat. At the same time, the archivists at the National Archives at College Park, Maryland, Fort Benning’s Donovan Research Library, Fort Knox’s Armor School Research Library, Fort Leavenworth’s Combined Arms Research Library, and the First Division Museum’s McCormick Research Center all offered incredible help in helping me find what I needed to write this dissertation. Alec Wahlman helped me understand some of these concepts, donated some of his research, and encouraged me through this process as he finished his dissertation. I am thankful and grateful for James Pruitt’s and Lee Daub’s friendship. James Pruitt’s companionship on our several research trips to Washington, D.C. made those trips pass iv more pleasantly. Lee Daub answered my random questions at random times on World War II equipment, armor, and aircraft. Mark and Lexi Day allowed me to stay at their place for a week in 2009 and Erin Pounders opened her place to me in 2011. Her parents, Ken and Penny Pounders, have opened their home to me on several Thanksgivings. All have taught me the meaning of generosity and hospitality. I want to extend my gratitude to the U.S. Army Heritage Education Center at the Military History Institute for its General and Mrs. Matthew B. Ridgway Research Grant that helped me to do extended research at their facility in Carlisle, Pennsylvania in 2009. I am thankful to Dr. Richard J. Sommers and Mr. David Keough for their help during those weeks. I also received timely financial assistance from the History Department grants as well as a matching grant from the Glasscock Center for Humanities Research. Lastly, I wish to thank my parents, Dick and Deanna Beall, for all their assistance and help. Their emotional, spiritual, and financial help has been invaluable. It is not too much to say that were it not for their encouragement, support, and prayers, I would not have finished this dissertation. And, finally, soli deo gloria. v NOMENCLATURE CARL Combined Arms Research Library, Fort Leavenworth, KS DRL Donovan Research Library, Fort Benning, GA MRC McCormick Research Center, First Division Museum, Wheaton, IL RG 407, Entry 427, NA Record Group 407 (Records of the Adjutant General’s Office, U.S. Army), Entry 427 (U.S. Army Operations Reports, World War II), National Archives, College Park, MD RG 407, Entry 427-A, NA “European Theater of Operations Combat Interviews, 1944-1945,” Record Group 407, Entry 427-A, National Archives, College Park, MD USAMHI United States Army Military History Institute, Carlisle, PA vi TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER Page I INTRODUCTION: WORLD WAR II, CITIES, AND AMERICAN MILITARY EFFECTIVENESS . 1 Objectives . 6 Historiography . 12 Procedure . 20 Endnotes . 24 II “AUGMENTED BUT UNDER-FUNDED”: INTERWAR DOCTRINE AND TRAINING . 30 Endnotes . 52 III “THAT TOWN IS FULL OF TROOPS”: TOWN FIGHTING IN OPERATIONS TORCH AND HUSKY . 60 Operation TORCH . 62 Operation HUSKY . 85 Conclusion . 104 Endnotes . 107 IV “THE STREETS WERE LITTERED WITH CORPSES”: FIGHTING FOR ITALY’S TOWNS, SEPTEMBER 1943 TO JUNE 1944 . 119 Up the Italian Boot: 18 September to 17 November 1943 . 123 Operation SHINGLE: 18 November 1943 to 4 June 1944 . 142 Endnotes . 164 V “WHAT IS TAUGHT AT BENNING . IS ALL WRONG”: DEVELOPING NEW APPROACHES TO URBAN COMBAT IN THE WARTIME ARMY. 176 Wartime Learning . 179 Wartime Doctrine . 191 Wartime Training . 204 Endnotes . 218 vii CHAPTER Page VI “KNOCK ‘EM ALL DOWN”: URBAN COMBAT WITH THE 1ST INFANTRY DIVISION, JUNE TO DECEMBER 1944 . 228 Endnotes . 280 VII “A SEEMINGLY ENDLESS NUMBER OF BRUTAL, TOE-TO-TOE SLUGFESTS”: URBAN COMBAT FOR THE 5TH AND 3RD INFANTRY DIVISIONS, JUNE TO DECEMBER 1944 . 298 5th Infantry Division . 298 3rd Infantry Division . 331 Conclusion . 363 Endnotes . 370 VIII “FIGHTING FROM HOUSE TO HOUSE AND STREET TO STREET”: URBAN COMBAT FROM DECEMBER 1944 TO MAY 1945 . 384 1st Infantry Division . 386 5th Infantry Division . 417 3rd Infantry Division . 439 Conclusion . 478 Endnotes . 480 IX CONCLUSION: “I COULD SEE NO SCARS OF BATTLE” . 504 Conclusion . 517 Endnotes . 527 REFERENCES . 531 viii LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 3.1 Seizure of Oran . 64 Figure 3.2 Road Net Sketch—Fedhala Area . 78 Figure 3.3 7th Infantry Assaults and Enters Casablanca, 10-11 November 1942 . 83 Figure 3.4 The Final Landing Plan . 89 Figure 3.5 II Corps Advance, 24-31 July 1943 . 92 Figure 3.6 Licata-Agrigento, Sicily . 98 Figure 4.1 Advance to the Volturno, 15 September-6 October 1943 . 121 Figure 4.2 Capture of Acerno, 20-22 September 1943 . 127 Figure 4.3 7th Infantry Captures Volturara, San Stefano, and Avellino, 28-30 September 1943 . 130 Figure 4.4 7th Infantry Drives on to Hills South of Dragoni, 14-18 October 1943 . 134 Figure 4.5 7th Infantry Outposts to the Front 19-21 October, Reconnoiters in Force 22-25 October 1943 . 138 Figure 4.6 Stalemate, Spring 1944 . 144 Figure 4.7 Capture of Cisterna, 23-25 May 1944 . 154 Figure 6.1 Final Overlord Plan . 231 Figure 6.2 Colleville-sur-Mer . 234 Figure 6.3 Breaching the West Wall South of Aachen, VII Corps, 12-29 September 1944 . 242 Figure 6.4 The Assault on Aachen, October 1944 . 252 ix Page Figure 6.5 The Hürtgen Forest, 16 November-9 December 1944 . 270 Figure 7.1 Battle for Angers, France . 301 Figure 7.2 XX Corps (Situation, Noon 6 September 1944) . 308 Figure 7.3 XX Corps Bridgehead, 13-25 September 1944 . 316 Figure 7.4 Battle for Metz, Envelopment from the South, 8-19 November 1944 . 321 Figure 7.5 Saarlautern Bridgehead, 3-19 December 1944 . 326 Figure 7.6 Breakout from the Blue Line, 17-19 August 1944 . 332 Figure 7.7 Brignoles, 18-19 August 1944 . 334 Figure 7.8 Seventh Army Advance toward Belfort, 4-14 September 1944 . 339 Figure 7.9 Plan of Besançon . 341 Figure 7.10 3/7 Assault on Noroy-le-Bourg, 12 September 1944 . 344.