Timber, Trade and Tree-rings. A dendrochronological analysis of structural oak timber in Northern Europe, c. AD 1000 to c. AD 1650. Aoife Daly Ph.D. thesis submitted February 2007 to the University of Southern Denmark. Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………..……….. i Summary ………………………………………………………………………………..…… iii Resumé (Summary in Danish) ……………………………………………………….…… vi Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………… x Structure of the Thesis …………………………………………………………………….. xii Section I........................................................................................................................... 1 1 Chapter 1: Background................................................................................... 1 2 Chapter 2: Dendrochronological data ........................................................... 5 2.1 The master chronology.............................................................................. 5 2.2 The oak tree-ring data ............................................................................... 9 2.3 GIS .......................................................................................................... 13 2.4 Choice of correlation statistic.................................................................. 14 3 Chapter 3: Towards a new provenance determination method.................... 17 3.1 Grouping the tree-ring data ..................................................................... 17 3.2 The method.............................................................................................. 20 3.3 Mapping .................................................................................................. 21 3.4 Data screening ......................................................................................... 21 3.5 The procedure.......................................................................................... 23 3.6 Cluster analysis ....................................................................................... 25 3.7 Choice of overlap .................................................................................... 28 3.8 Geographically floating chronologies ..................................................... 37 4 Chapter 4: Results......................................................................................... 41 4.1 Cockchafer .............................................................................................. 41 4.2 Living tree examples ............................................................................... 45 4.2.1 Langholt forest .................................................................................. 46 4.2.2 Brahetrolleborg ................................................................................. 46 4.2.3 LS111................................................................................................ 50 4.2.4 Flensburg........................................................................................... 56 4.2.5 Ratzeburg (H11FA) .......................................................................... 57 4.2.6 Hasbruch (G3902)............................................................................. 59 4.2.7 Knobben............................................................................................ 59 4.2.8 Mossige ............................................................................................. 61 4.2.9 Vallø.................................................................................................. 65 4.3 Rules of provenance determination......................................................... 66 Section II ....................................................................................................................... 69 5 Chapter 5 Case studies ................................................................................. 69 5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 69 6 Chapter 6:......................................................................................................72 6.1 The Cog ...................................................................................................72 6.2 12 th century...............................................................................................72 6.2.1 Kollerup.............................................................................................72 6.2.2 Kolding..............................................................................................78 6.2.3 Skagen ...............................................................................................85 6.3 13 th century...............................................................................................87 6.3.1 Kuggmaren 1 .....................................................................................87 6.3.2 Bossholmen .......................................................................................95 6.3.3 Rutten A57 ......................................................................................100 6.4 14 th century.............................................................................................102 6.4.1 Dronten M61 ...................................................................................102 6.4.2 Swifterbant OG77............................................................................102 6.4.3 Doel, Antwerp, Belgium .................................................................104 6.4.4 Oostvaardersplassen Almere CZ46 .................................................108 6.4.5 Nijkerk Flevol. OZ36 ......................................................................108 6.4.6 Lille Kregme....................................................................................109 6.4.7 Vejby ...............................................................................................111 6.4.8 Bremen ............................................................................................115 6.4.9 Skanör..............................................................................................116 6.5 15 th century.............................................................................................117 6.5.1 Ketelhaven / Spakenburg NZ43 ......................................................117 7 Chapter 7: Two 12 th century Nordic ships...................................................119 7.1.1 Karschau..........................................................................................119 7.1.2 Möweninsel Ship.............................................................................119 8 Chapter 8: Two large cargo ships from Norway ........................................123 8.1.1 Avaldsnes ........................................................................................123 8.1.2 The Bøle ship, Skien, Norway.........................................................127 9 Chapter 9: Two late 16 th century ships........................................................141 9.1.1 B&W1 .............................................................................................141 9.1.2 Bredfjed case study .........................................................................152 10 Chapter 10: Barrels.....................................................................................159 10.1.1 Four barrels from the earliest Ribe................................................159 10.1.2 Viborg Søndersø............................................................................162 10.1.3 Horsens (A130) .............................................................................165 10.1.4 Dagmarsgården, Ribe (ASR 1015)................................................166 10.1.5 Præstegade 13, Ribe ......................................................................168 10.1.6 Ribelund (ASR 926)......................................................................169 10.1.7 Nygade 10, Ribe (ASR 11)............................................................170 10.1.8 Skjern Bro barrel ...........................................................................171 10.1.9 Stege, Møn & Skt Pederstræde, Viborg (the late medieval well) .172 10.1.10 Slotsgade 3-7, Ribe......................................................................174 10.1.11 Saltgade 4, Ribe...........................................................................174 10.1.12 Horsens (A116)........................................................................... 176 10.1.13 The southern Baltic group........................................................... 177 10.1.14 Brolæggerstræde, Copenhagen ................................................... 179 10.1.15 Late 16 th to mid 17 th century barrel finds .................................... 180 10.2 Summing up .......................................................................................... 183 Section III ................................................................................................................... 187 11 Chapter 11: Timber, trade and tree-rings .................................................. 187 11.1 Timber trade .......................................................................................... 189 11.2 Wood shortage....................................................................................... 189 11.3 Mechanisms of transport ....................................................................... 193 11.4 Unseasoned timber ................................................................................ 193 11.5