Journal of Indian History and Culture ISSN : 0975 - 7805 JOURNAL OF INDIAN HISTORY AND CULTURE September 2018 Twenty Fourth Issue C.P. RAMASWAMI AIYAR INSTITUTE OF INDOLOGICAL RESEARCH (affiliated to the University of Madras) The C.P. Ramaswami Aiyar Foundation 1 Eldams Road, Chennai 600 018, INDIA September 2018, Twenty Fourth Issue 1 Journal of Indian History and Culture Editor : Dr. G. J. Sudhakar Editorial Board Prof. Nanditha Krishna Dr. K.V. Raman Dr. V. Mohan Dr. G. Balaji Dr. V. Sandhiyalakshmi Published by Prof. Nanditha Krishna C.P.Ramaswami Aiyar Institute of Indological Research The C.P. Ramaswami Aiyar Foundation 1 Eldams Road Chennai 600 018 Tel : 2434 1778 / 2435 9366 Fax : 91-44-24351022 E-Mail: [email protected] / [email protected] Website: www.cprfoundation.org Layout Design : T. Pichulakshmi Subscription Rs. 150/- (for 1 issue) Rs. 290/- (for 2 issues) 2 September 2018, Twenty Fourth Issue Journal of Indian History and Culture CONTENTS 1 Folklore Associated with Sacred Groves in Tamil Nadu, India - Dr. M. Amirthalingam 9 2 Superstitious Beliefs and Supernatural Powers: An Ethno-Archaeological Study of Indian Rock Paintings - Dr. G. Balaji 24 3 History of Educational System in Ancient Taminadu A Study - Dr. R. Xavier 38 4 Arunachaleswarar Temple at Tiruvannamalai, Tamilnadu - An Inscriptional Study - Prof. T. Ramaswamy 57 5 Substantive Economy of the Hill Tribes of Kollam & the Indigenous Trade Network in Early Medieval Kerala (800-1500CE): An Appraisal - Mr. Sudarsana Kumar N 64 6 A Historical Study on Aranthangi Arasu: As gleaned from Inscriptions (1400CE - 1750CE) - Mr. G. Pauldurai 97 7 Dara Shukoh: A Forgotten Mughal’s Legacy of Tolerance - Dr. Shan Eugene Palakkal 123 September 2018, Twenty Fourth Issue 3 Journal of Indian History and Culture 8 The Native Merchants and the English East India Company on The Coromandel Coast in The Seventeenth Century - Dr. S. Babu 136 9 Louis Noel De Bourzes, S.J.- The Lexicographer - Dr. A. Arputhaselvi 158 10 Karaikal under the French (1739-1817) - Dr. R. Velmurugan 165 11 Christian Missionaries and the Progressive Transformation of Modern Travancore - Dr. Shaji. A 178 12 Religious Conversion and Transition of Dalit Women in Travancore: An Overview - Ms. Soumya. L. R. 192 13 Change and Transformation in the Lives of Thanjavur Maratha Queens and the Doctrine of Lapse (1856-1862) - Dr. Usha R Vijailakshmi 207 14 Contribution of Mahatma Gandhiji to Education during the Champaran Satyagraha of 1917 - Dr. V. C. Francis Xavier 230 15 Revitalisation of Ayurveda: Institutionalisation and Standardisation of Medicine in Colonial South India - Dr. Kanagarathinam D V 241 16 Race, Religion and Caste in French India - Dr. A. Suresh 268 4 September 2018, Twenty Fourth Issue Journal of Indian History and Culture 17 Reforms in Women’s Inheritance Rights with Special Reference to the Hindu Succession Act 1956 – A Critical Study - Dr. S. Yasodhamani 307 18 History of District Munisif Court, Krishnagiri (1806-2006) - Ms. C. Priya Lakshmi 327 19 Tribal Revolt and the Naxalite Movement in Srikakulam District of Andhra Pradesh - Dr. D. Mercy Ratna Rani 340 20 Socio-Economic Indicators of Women Empowerment in Kerala - A Study - Ms. Anuja .S.S 351 21 Tonsure - A Glimpse into its Genesis and the Religious Perspective - Dr. Cinthia Jude 364 22 Redefining Forest and Forestry - Ms. Pramila Khadanga 379 23 “Subaltern Project” -The People’s History: Its Inspiration, Scope & Limitations - Mr. Jay Singh Yadav 396 24 Book Review 1 416 25 Book Review 2 421 26 Book Review 3 424 September 2018, Twenty Fourth Issue 5 Journal of Indian History and Culture 6 September 2018, Twenty Fourth Issue Journal of Indian History and Culture EDITOR’S NOTE Our Journal has been a peer reviewed one for a long time now. We would like to increase the quality further, and that surely depends on the CONTRIBUTORS! I would like to express my sincere thanks to all our referees for sparing their valuable time for us. Most of the papers are well researched. However, a few of them deserve special mention. They are the contributions of Prof. T. Ramaswamy, Dr. Shan Eugene Palakkal and younger scholars like Dr. A. Suresh, Dr. D.V. Kanagarathinam, Mr. Sudarsana Kumar, Mr. G. Pauldurai and Mr. Jay Singh Yadav. We thank Dr. Rukmini Nagarajan, Dr. Prabha Ravishankar and Mr. Monish Borah for reviewing books for this issue. We are reminding all our contributors to send Abstracts and Key Words in their papers. I would like to wholeheartedly thank Dr. Nanditha Krishna, President, The C.P. Ramaswami Aiyar Foundation, Mrs. Malathy Narasimhan, Mr. Narayan Onkar, Dr. G. Balaji, Mr. R. Sathyanarayanan and Mrs. Pichu Lakshmi and all the members of the Foundation who have helped in bringing out this Journal. Dr. G. J. SUDHAKAR September 2018, Twenty Fourth Issue 7 Journal of Indian History and Culture 8 September 2018, Twenty Fourth Issue Journal of Indian History and Culture 1 FOLKLORE ASSOCIATED WITH SACRED GROVES IN TAMIL NADU, INDIA Dr. M. Amirthalingam C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre Chennai. Abstract Sacred groves probably represent the single most important ecological heritage of the ancient Indian cultural tradition. Folklore plays an important role in the conservation of sacred groves. The local people believe that their ancestors still live in the sacred groves and that the goddess of the sacred grove appeared before the merchants and offered consolation. Folklore of Thiruchitramabalam sacred grove is dedicated to Ponniamman. Konjkuppam sacred grove is situated between Panruti and Neyveli. There is a grove dedicated to Sri Sembiyanar. The Indian butter tree, banyan, mango, Indian cherry, Indian laburnum, neem, tamarind, ironwood tree, Alexandrian laurel, yellow oleander tree, Pala indigo (Writia tinctoria) trees are the predominant trees of the sacred grove. Nowadays, the anthropologists and the ecologists have identified these trees as culturally keystone species. Key words: Folklore, sacred groves, cultural keystone species, taboos, beliefs Introduction India is known for its age old traditions and their origins go back to time immemorial. The ‘folklore’, preserves our nature September 2018, Twenty Fourth Issue 9 Journal of Indian History and Culture and natural resources. Many places are considered as sacred sites in India. These sacred sites are usually associated with a place of specific customs, beliefs, practices and taboos. A sacred site seems to be very rich in cultural and biological diversity. In India, Tamil culture in particular is sacred in many ways and forms. For example, hillocks, mountains, groves, trees, animals, lakes, springs, rivers, gardens and even stones are sacred. Traditionally, sacred groves have had as less an influence by the local inhabitants as possible. They are the repositories of unique and rare plant species, home for myriad insects, birds, reptiles, animals and store houses of the country’s diverse natural wealth. It also helps to retain the sub-soil water level of the area and provides life sustenance for the villagers. Sacred groves probably represent the single most important ecological heritage of the ancient Indian cultural tradition. Sacred groves are valuable culturally and historically as sacred sites. Though it is not a forest generally, but they can be considered as biological reserves which are similar to biosphere reserves and probably constitute the only representation of forests in near- virgin condition in many parts of India and in Tamilnadu (Gadgil and Vartak, 1976). They are a kind of conservation area and as well as a spiritual retreat. Taboos, rituals and beliefs The taboos, rituals and beliefs associated with the sacred groves, are supported by mystic folklore and this has been the prime motivating factor for preserving them in pristine condition. People believe that any damage to the sacred groves, may harm the fauna residing in it or felling of any tree may invite the fury of the local deity, causing diseases and failure of agricultural crops. Even breaking a dry twig from the tree is forbidden in some communities. 10 September 2018, Twenty Fourth Issue Journal of Indian History and Culture Folklore plays an important role in the conservation of sacred groves. Not only tribal people, but the rural people also preserved the sacred groves by their traditional customs, rituals, ceremonies and folk-beliefs. Several stories depict various facets of life and culture of the people. The annual festival is celebrated in the sacred groves of all districts accompanied by community offerings of pongal (sweet rice porridge) and animal sacrifice. As against the animal sacrifice, villagers believe that Aiyanar (local deity) residing in a temple and is endowed with the offering of a coconut and pongal. He is worshipped daily and also offered a special prayer on full moon and new moon days. As an annual ritual, a weeklong celebration is usually held during the post-harvest season (March- April). In some sacred groves, the local communities celebrate an annual festival between July and August. Every family member of the locality comes to the temple in the grove for performing rituals (i.e.) cooking of rice. They cook food in certain groves by growing a fire igniting with the dead wood collected from the sacred grove. The food preparations are first offered to the deities and other subordinate deities and then the food is distributed to all those who take part in the festival. In all the sacred groves, offering pongal to the associated deity is either by individuals or by the community. Sacrifice of fowl, goat and sheep is done to all the deities except Aiyanar, while pigs are sacrificed to Karuppuswami. In certain sacred groves, people fulfil their vows by tonsuring (shaving the head to make a ceremonial offering of hair to the god) or by presenting of terracotta horses of various sizes which are lined up in front of the deity within the sacred grove in the hope of a good harvest.