E. E. CUMMINGS: MIRROR AND ARBITER OF HIS AGE by ROBERT LOUIS McBROOM, B.A., M.A. A DISSERTATION IN ENGLISH Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Approved August, 1971 rJo. LD Clop. 2 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I sim deeply indebted to Professor Everett A. Gillis for hi£ direction of this dissertation and to the other members of my committee, Professors Y/arren Stanley Walker and Floyd Eugene Eddleman, for their helpful criticism. 11 CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii INTRODUCTION 1 PART ONE: THE AGE OP ANXIETY 4 I. Rise of the Age of Anxiety 4 II. Twentieth Century Characteristics: Alienation, Cynicism, Prustration, Rebellion 17 III. Cummings* View of His Age: Personal Statement 29 IV. Cummings' Position in Kodern American Verse: Critical Assessment 39 PAR TWO: CUmiNGS* KOLE AS AKTIST IN A lîASS SOCIETY 47 V. The rviOdern Poet as Activist 47 VI. Cummings* Poetry of Alienation 55 VII. Cumraings as Cynic: Satire and Irony .... 87 VIII. Cummings' Poetry of Frustration 112 IX. Cummings as Rebel Poet 128 PART THREE: CUMI^INGS AS A MODERN AT-IERICAN POET ... 160 X. The Affirmative Synthesis 160 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 167 APPENDIX 174 A. Poems of Alienation 175 11• 1• B. Cynical Poems 177 C. Poems of Prustration 182 D. Poems of Rebellion 183 E. Poems Exhibiting Some of All Characteristics 190 IV INTRODUCTION Of the many possible approaches to a piece of literature, the most objective is that one which limits itself to a concern with form. Certainly, a work of art should stand or fall on its own merit, regardless of its author, regardless of the time and culture in which it is written, as do, for example, the works of both greater artists—Sophocles, or Dante, or Shakespeare—and lesser ones—Villon, Chekhov, Dickens. Strip their names from the texts, judge them, and there is little reason to doubt that v.'hen the final evaluation is in, proper acclaim will be forthcoming. Moreover, there v/ould be a generality of agreement that these works contain the element found in all great literature: that power which G. B. Harrison has termed "universality." Yet to appreciate any artistic creation only in and for its unique ability to create life like characters involved in lifelike situations is to deny the richer response stemraing from a realization of a par- ticular author*s fine and delicate sensibility exhibited 1 G. B. Harrison, Six Plays of Shakespeare (New Yor Harcourt, Brace & World, 1949), ip. 1. toward the particular age in which his characters and situations flower. ^Each age is, in effect, the sum of its past which continually irapinges on its present, molding and shaping it, giving it substance and color. No literature of merit has ever been created in a vacuum. We may read the great artists and appreciate their art, never troubling to dis- cover anything about their culture. Yet this would be to appreciate only one facet of their genius.J On the other hand, to discover something about Sophocles* Athens or an Athenian*s viev; of the gods, or to discover that Dante was creating a new and viable literature in the midst of a theologically centered culture, or to discover that Shakespeare was interpreting his universal characters in the midst of a world v/hich v/as at once clinging to earlier medieval concepts and struggling v/ith the new huraanistic worldliness would enliance one's understanding and apprecis tion of those raen's art. For each nev/ generation a view, containing both the universal truths and the unique insights of any given generation, is apprehendable, but it is predominantly the artist v/ho takes the time to look. Often detached and objective in his approach, he observes, notes, and refleci upon everything that his limited organic sensory facultieî will adrait to him. To depict, however, only what one sees does not produce a great work of art; for the great artist does not merely reproduce^ with faithful detail, everyday events. In his enlarging and fleshing out of the common- place, through a finely attuned sensibility, he, in effect recreates his culture;Jhe articulates the Zeitgeist of his time. As the present study will demonstrate, E. E. Cum- ^mings, for modern America, is in the tradition of those artists who are mirrors and arbiters of their age. Throug his poetry we see reflected the intensity of tensions and complexity peculiar to the twentieth century. By employ- ing satire, parody, irony, and cynicism, he judges and consequently condemns the century of which he is a part. PART ONE: THE AGE OP ANXIETY Rise of the Age of Anxiety In 1960, Clarence A. Glasrud noted that "it grows ever more likely that the best label for our age will be W. H. Auden's perceptive phrase, 'The Age of Anxiety.'" Auden*s phrase furnishes the title for a long poem of his which is significantly subtitled A Baroque Eclo^e, and in which he brings together a group of war-torn, tension-rid- den, morally indecisive people and allows their dialogue 2 to point up the dilemmas oi modem civilization. One decade later, it seems that Glasrud's observation is just as perceptive, for the cognoraen of "The Age of Anxiety" slips v/ith increasing frequency into conteraporary discus- sions of the first half of the twentieth century."^ With 1 Clarence A. Glasrud, "Introduction," The A^e of Anxiety (Carabridge: The Riverside Press, 1960), p. vii. The kpie of Anxiety: A Baroque Eclogue (New York: Randora Kouse, 1947). For some typical examples see Jacques Barzun, God* Coimtry and Mine (Boston: Little, Brov^-n, 1954), p. 48; se.e also Karen Horney*s discussion of anxiety in The Neurotic Personality of Our Tirae (Nev/ York: Norton, 1937); also "In the Age of Anxiety," Tirae, LI (January 12, 1948), 49-50. our age thus appropriately named, the question naturall.y arises as to the sources of this anxiety with v/hich the century seems to be plagued. It should be remarked at this juncture that our age is not unique in being troubled by conflicts and ten- sions. As regards "historical pessimism," Benedetto Croce has pointed out that "the shadow of pessimism covers from time to time the life of the individual and similarly the life of societies; and doubts, fears and despair over the future are of all eras of history." 4 ^I t seems to us, never theless, that our age i_s unique in that never before has man had to endure conflicts, tensions, and skepticism in such extrerae intensity in so raany areas of huraan understand ing: spiritual, social, biological, and psychological. The Aigst coming from these conflicts seeras to have risen from forces spav.ned, ironically, at the birth of Christiani Karl Jaspers, in his provocative, serainal study of contemporary civilization, raakes the observation that in the V/est, as a sequel of the spread of Christi- anity, skepticisra of another kind became possible. The idea of a transcendental creator, existing be- fore, after, and epart from the v;orld he had fashioned out of Chaos, reduced that world to the level of a mere creature. All that had been created v/as nov/ the object of human co^^nition, re- thinking (as it v/ere) God's thoughts. Protestant Benedetto Croce, Politics and Morals (Nev/ York: The Philosophical Library, 194^), p. 200. Christianity took the mattcr very seriously. Thc natural sciences, with their rationalisa- tion, matheraaticisation, and mechanisation of the world, were closely akin to this form of Christianity. The great scientific investigators of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were pious Christians. But when, finally, advancing doubt made £in end of God the Creator, there was left in being no more than the mechanical world- system recognized by the natural sciences—a world-system which would never have been so crudely denuded of spirit but for its previous degradation to the status of a creature.5 The emphasis in this statement resides in Jaspers' insis- tence upon the importance of rationality in reducing the "world-system" to a'treature," and this insistence received its greatest impetus during the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries—climaxing in the eighteenth, which is appropriately naraed by raodcm intellcctual historians, in recognition of this fact, the Age of Reason. The Age of Reason, v/ith Bacon as the recognized principal figure, gave to us the raodern scientific mind and a cold, dispassionate, and—above all—rational, ap- proach to the problems of man's relationship to himself and to his place in the universe. Before, man had assuraed that his pov/ers to know and understand v/ere limited more or less to the here and now; with the idealization of the human mind as an organ, or system, v/hose powers seemed to ^Karl Jaspers, Man in the Modern Age [1931], tr. by Eden and Cedar Paul (London: George Koutledge & Sons, Ltd., 1933), pp. 19-20. "be unlimited, man began to conceive of himself as possess- ing such powers of rationalism that he would at last be able to unlock the secrets of the universe. When one con- siders the rapid advances, the multitude and profundity of new discoveries in science, the extravagance of man's optimism during the last half of the eighteenth century may well be understood. These discoveries, resulting from the increased application of reason and science, began to manifest them- selves in sundry ways. The idea of man's individuality began to impress itself upon the times; and the great movements, illustrated by the colonial revolution in Araerica and its counterpart in France, v/ere symptomatic of a hemispheric change in thought with respect to the worth of coramon man.