Abyssal Ideology and the Amerindians of Guyana: an eco-crimes analysis of power, discourse and cognitive injustice Delon Alain Omrow A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Program in Environmental Studies York University Toronto, Ontario May 2017 © Delon Alain Omrow, 2017 Abstract Cognitive injustice- that is, the failure to recognize the plurality of epistemologies and the manner in which people across the globe provide meaning to their existence- should be the subject of critical criminological inquiry because it is directly linked to both environmental and social injustice. This dissertation presents a comparative and critical analysis of the discourses surrounding the indigenous peoples of Guyana, the Amerindians. Massaging the parameters of green criminology and the eco-crimes framework, I synthesize Norman Fairclough’s (1995) methodology known as critical discourse analysis (hereafter CDA) and Boaventura de Sousa Santos’ (2006) theoretical framework of abyssal thinking in order to capture the “Amerindian experience” from the dawn of colonialism to recent conservation efforts, such as the country’s very first community-owned conservation area (C.O.C.A.). In my attempt to unmask cognitive injustice via discourse, I also demonstrate how the experiences and speech of the Amerindians can challenge this injustice by exercising what Santos refers to as post- abyssal thinking. ii Acknowledgements I am at a complete loss for words when I think of the indefatigable efforts of my incredible supervisory committee: Dr. Ravi de Costa, Dr. Anna Zalik and Dr. Livy Visano. Ravi, I can still remember the very first time we met in the Second Cup on campus. You sipped on your Americano and nodded as I explained the scope of the project. From the earliest draft, to the final one, you provided generous counsel. Your patience truly knows no limits and I am incredibly grateful to have you as a friend and supervisor. I wish everyone could know how much energy and intellectual complexity you contributed to this project – perhaps they will, one day. Anna, your brilliance is unrivalled and you challenged me to think in ways I never thought I was capable of. Your advice on the mechanics of research was of inestimable worth and I thank you for it. Livy, what could I say about you and your contributions? You were my professor at York University when I was an undergraduate student and now you are a committee member overseeing this project. You are the reason I entertained graduate school; there were many times I felt as if I didn’t belong in academia. Thank you, dear friend, for making me feel welcome. A special thanks to Dr. Camille Hernandez-Ramdwar, Dr. Honor Ford-Smith and Dr. Claudio Colaguori. My fellow luminaries, your participation in this process truly humbles me. Claudio, working alongside you as your teaching assistant all those years prepared me for this intellectual and spiritual journey. Thank you for taking me under your wing and supporting me every step of the way. I look forward to working with you on those ideas we conjured up during the past four years. iii Dedication This work is dedicated to my mother, Angela Omrow I have always been aware of the tremendous sacrifices you made in order to help me get to this point in my life Your unwavering faith in me pushed me through this dissertation, even when I thought I had nothing left inside iv List of Maps and Diagrams Map 1: “The Land of Many Waters” 23 Map 2: Distribution of the Amerindians 27 Map 3: Distribution of the Amerindians in the 19th Century 35 Map 4: British Guiana 41 Map 5: Konashen Community-Owned Conservation Area 335 Diagram 1: Dimensions of Discourse 146 v TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ii Acknowledgments iii Dedication iv List of Maps and Diagram v Table of Contents vi Introduction 1 1. The Land of Many Waters: A Clarion Call to Green Criminologists 15 Guyana’s Geography: “The Land of Many Waters” 16 Guyana’s Demographics: “The Land of Six Peoples” 24 Guyana’s History: Dutch Occupation 28 Guyana’s History: The Birth of British Guiana 36 Guyana’s History: The Co-operative Republic 42 Post-colonial Independence and the Regime 46 of “Co-operative Socialism” (1966-1985) Post-Socialist Liberalization and ‘Reformed Democracy’ (1986-2004) 58 Eco-Crimes: Why Guyana? 63 State Actions Mining 67 Logging 71 Unsettled Land Claims 72 Private Actions Development Projects 75 Geopolitical Action Conservation in Guyana 76 2. Re-Configuration of Eco-Crimes 78 Paradigmatic Antecedents of a Green Criminology 78 The Green Light 80 Ontological Specifications of Eco-Crimes 87 Corporatist Perspective and Eco-Crime 89 Environmental Justice Perspective and Eco-Crime 92 Primary and Secondary ‘Green Crimes’ 95 Conservation Criminology and Eco-Crime 98 Discourses of Harm and Eco-Crime 100 Biological/Ecological Integrity and Eco-Crime 101 Eco-Global Criminology and Eco-Crime 106 Genetically Modified Food and Eco-Crime 108 It’s Not Easy Being Green 110 vi Paradigmatic Shift and the Re-configuration of Eco-Crime 117 3. Methodological Statement 121 Theoretical Framework Discourse Analysis 125 Critical Discourse Analysis 134 Frame Analysis 149 Critical Discourse Analysis in Practice 151 Green Criminology Data Selection and Analysis 152 Scope of the Project 154 Methodological Procedures 155 Potential Bias 157 List of Potential Frames 157 Colony/Nation Ascendency Frame 158 Assimilation Frame 159 Paternalism Frame 160 Deficit-Oriented Frame 161 Collaboration Frame 161 4. The Inception of Abyssal Ideology and Dutch Occupation of Guiana 163 The Origins of Abyssal Ideology 165 The Negotiation and Contestation of Discursive Power: 184 Amerindian Resistance 5. The Creation of British Guiana and the Perpetuation of Abyssal Ideology 189 The Consolidation of British Power 190 The Forestry and Mining Sectors: Amerindian Rights and Crown Land 213 Abyssal Practice and the Production of Nonexistence 218 Abyssal Ideology and Discourse 221 The Negotiation and Contestation of Discursive Power: 240 Amerindian Resistance The Antecedents of Contemporary Conservation in Guyana 250 6. The Independence of Guyana and the Perpetuation of Abyssal Ideology 252 Amerindians at the Dawn of a New Nation 253 The Amerindian Act of 1976 262 The Mining Act of 1989 272 Abyssal Practice and the Production of Nonexistence 280 Abyssal Ideology and Discourse 283 The Negotiation and Contestation of Discursive Power: 296 Amerindian Resistance Abyssal Machinery and the Antecedents of Neoliberal Conservation 310 7. The Abyssal Dimensions of Conservation 312 Conservation for Whom? 313 vii Conservation in the Land of Many Waters 318 Guyana’s Community-Owned Conservation Area 328 Abyssal Practice and the Production of Nonexistence 336 Abyssal Ideology and Discourse 339 The Negotiation and Contestation of Discursive Power: 351 Amerindian Resistance 8. Conclusion 359 A Shift Towards Post-Abyssal Thinking Future Research Endeavors 363 References Cited 365 viii Introduction Cognitive injustice- that is, the failure to recognize the plurality of epistemologies and the manner in which people across the globe provide meaning to their existence- should be the subject of critical criminological inquiry because it is directly linked to both environmental and social injustice. This dissertation presents a comparative and critical analysis of the discourses surrounding the indigenous peoples of Guyana- The Amerindians. Massaging the parameters of green criminology and the eco-crimes framework, I synthesize Norman Fairclough’s (1995) methodology known as critical discourse analysis (hereafter CDA) and Boaventura de Sousa Santos’ (2006) theoretical framework of abyssal thinking in order to capture the “Amerindian experience” from the dawn of colonialism to recent conservation efforts, such as the country’s very first community-owned conservation area (C.O.C.A.). One of green criminology’s objectives is to link ‘green crimes’ to social inequalities, but I aim to expand the field by analyzing how such crimes are also linked to cognitive injustice. Informed by the inspiring work of discourse-power theorist Michel Foucault and the growing literature in the field of discourse analysis, this dissertation attempts to unmask hidden mechanisms of cognitive injustice via discourse, whilst demonstrating how the experiences and speech of marginalized and excluded populations can challenge this injustice. The over-arching argument put forth in this work is (1) green criminological inquiry can be expanded by focusing on cognitive injustice and its links to both environmental and social injustice; (2) a more nuanced understanding of eco-crimes can be achieved by adopting methodologies such as CDA, advancing the social legalist perspective and (3) that CDA enables green criminologists to document how certain 1 discourses can be subverted and challenged, bringing about what Foucault and Santos refer to as resistance and post-abyssal thinking, respectively. In his beautifully penned Manifesto for Good Living, Santos (2014) presents a clarion call to the global South- those denizens of geographies who have faced the inexorable voracity of neoliberal capitalism and its tentacles: colonialism, capitalism between humans and nature, monocultures of knowledge; the ‘linearity’ of progression and the productivism of economic growth- to mention only a few. The global North’s transnationalization of injustice bears many masks and this dissertation aims to critically analyze the discursive representation of indigenous peoples – specifically, the Amerindians of Guyana. According to Santos, modern Western thinking constitutes abyssal thinking through an intricate system of visible and invisible distinctions, with the latter serving as a foundation for the former. Invisible distinctions are composed of radical lines which divide social reality into two distinct realms: the realm of “this side of the line” and the realm of “the other side of the line” (Santos 2007). It bears emphasizing that through this division of social reality, “the other side of the line” runs the risk of vanishing because it is produced as nonexistent by those on “this side of the line”.