Local Elite Adjustment in Indonesia’s Democratization: Case Studies of North Sumatra and East Java, 1998-2013 Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde der Philosophischen Fakultät der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg i. Br. vorgelegt von Panji Anugrah Permana Aus Sukabumi, Indonesien SS 2017 Erstgutachter: Prof. Dr. Jürgen Rüland Zweitgutachter: Prof. Dr. Judith Schlehe Vorsitzender des Promotionsausschusses: Prof. Dr. Andreas Mehler Der Gemeinsamen Kommission der Philologischen, Philosophischen und Wirtschafts- und Verhaltenswissenschaftlichen Fakultät: Prof. Dr. Hans-Helmuth Gander Datum der Fachprüfung im Promotionsfach: 11.07.2017 ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page ........................................................................................................................................... i Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................... iii List of Table ............................................................................................................................. v List of Figure ............................................................................................................................ v Glossary ..................................................................................................................................... vi Chapter One Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1 Chapter Two ............................................................................................................................... 7 Theory and Methodology ........................................................................................................... 7 I. Theoretical Premises ..................................................................................................................... 7 A. Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 7 B. The Structuralist Approach ......................................................................................................... 7 Elite and democratization studies ................................................................................ 11 Structuralism and democratization studies in Indonesia ............................................. 12 C. The Actor-Centered Approach ................................................................................................. 14 Elite and democratization studies ................................................................................ 17 Elites and democratization studies in Indonesia .......................................................... 19 D. The Ideational Approach .......................................................................................................... 21 Ideas and democratization studies ............................................................................... 22 Democratization studies in Indonesia: Bringing ideas in ............................................ 23 Enlisting the cultural turn for elite studies in Indonesia .............................................. 25 E. Eclectic Theorizing in Elite Analyses ...................................................................................... 27 F. Research Arguments ................................................................................................................. 29 II. Methodology and Research Techniques ..................................................................................... 30 A. Comparative Case Study Method and Process Tracing Analysis ............................................. 30 B. The Cases .................................................................................................................................. 34 C. Research Techniques ................................................................................................................ 37 Chapter Three ........................................................................................................................... 40 Politics in Indonesia: Structure, Actors and Ideas .................................................................... 40 I. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 40 II. Trajectories of Political Order in Indonesia: Institutional Structure, Actor Strategies and Ideas . 42 A. Parliamentary Democracy (1950-1957) ................................................................................... 42 B. “Guided Democracy” (1957-1965) .......................................................................................... 48 C. The New Order (1965/1966-1998) ........................................................................................... 50 D. The post-New Order Era: Bringing Democracy Back In ......................................................... 58 1. Habibie’s Reforms ................................................................................................... 59 2. Constitutional Amendments ..................................................................................... 61 3. Decentralization Reform in 1999: Deconstructing the Myth of Unitarism ............. 63 4. Revision of the Decentralization Policy in 2004 and Direct Local Elections ......... 66 III. Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 68 Chapter Four Elites and Democratization in North Sumatra ................................................... 71 I. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 71 II. Elite and Institutional Structure ..................................................................................................... 71 A. Socio-Economic Conditions and Historical Background ......................................................... 71 B. Institutional Dynamics of Local Political Power: Parties and Elections .................................. 75 1. General Elections ..................................................................................................... 75 2. Local Elections ........................................................................................................ 81 3. Elite Configuration: Old and New Elites ............................................................... 100 III. Elite and Strategic Actions towards Democratization ............................................................... 107 A. Local Elections and Transactional Politics ............................................................................. 111 B. Elite Networks and Alliance Building .................................................................................... 116 1. Party Networks and National Elites Networks ...................................................... 116 iii 2. Ethnic and Religious Politics ................................................................................. 122 3. Patronage and Personal Networks ......................................................................... 131 4. The Hobbesian Nature of Inter-Elite Competition ................................................ 137 IV. Elite and Ideational Contestation .............................................................................................. 144 A. Proximity to the People .......................................................................................................... 144 B. The Rise of Oppositional Ideas .............................................................................................. 153 C. External Challenge and Elite Perception: Local Elites as Ideational Carriers and Barriers ... 157 V. Conclusion: Tracing the Process of Elite Adjustment in North Sumatra .................................. 168 Chapter Five Elite and Democratization in East Java ............................................................ 172 I. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 172 II. Elite and Institutional Context .................................................................................................... 172 A. Socio-Economic Condition..................................................................................................... 172 B. The Dynamics of Local Political Power: Parties and Elections ............................................. 174 1. General Elections ................................................................................................... 174 2. Local Elections ...................................................................................................... 181 C. Elite Continuity ...................................................................................................................... 200 III. Elite and Strategic Actions towards Democratization ............................................................... 206 A. Political Networks: Local Elites and Three Political Machines ............................................. 209 B. Personal Networks: Friends and Alliances ............................................................................. 214 C. Party Networks: Inclusion and Accommodation ...................................................................