EXPLORING THE DIVERSITY OF GENTRIFICATION AND THE ROLE OF GENDER IN HONG KONG, 1986 TO 2006 By Minting Ye A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Geography –Doctor of Philosophy 2014 ABSTRACT EXPLORING THE DIVERSITY OF GENTRIFICATION AND THE ROLE OF GENDER IN HONG KONG, 1986 TO 2006 By Minting Ye Gentrification is restructuring the geography of cities all over the world (Clark, 2005; Hackworth and Smith, 2001; Lees, 2000; Smith and Defilippis, 1999; Wyly and Hammel, 1999). As a global city, Hong Kong experienced a transformation from an th industrial to a specialized services and high-tech economy in the late 20 century (Ho, 1992; Lo, 1997; 2005). Accompanying this shift, there has been a notable drive for urban redevelopment that has fundamentally altered the physical and social characteristics of Hong Kong’s neighborhoods. Despite the economic and built environment transformations in Hong Kong, not much attention has been given to neighborhood displacement of the poor, including women. With a focus on gentrification, I examine the various types of physical and social upgrading processes in Hong Kong from 1986 to 2006 and explore how women were involved in or affected by these redevelopment processes. This research answers the following four major questions: 1) How extensive have gentrification processes been within Hong Kong between the years 1986 and 2006? 2) What is the degree of displacement that has resulted from gentrification in Hong Kong during these years? 3) Have redevelopment efforts in Hong Kong resulted in a diversity of gentrification processes and what are some of their basic characteristics? 4) What is the role of women in Hong Kong’s gentrification? Principal component analysis and K-means clustering are used to identify areas within Hong Kong that are experiencing physical and social upgrading. From the quantitative analysis, three neighborhoods—Tiu Keng Leng, Kennedy Town, and Yuen Long—are selected for a qualitative study of neighborhood change, and an examination into the complexity and the diversity of capital reinvestment, social conflict, and displacement. These three neighborhoods are also used to show the diversity in the role of women in gentrification. Results shows that in different parts of Hong Kong, gentrification is driven by different agents and diverse redevelopment processes that have resulted in a range of displaced income groups. The case study of Hong Kong reaffirms the importance of the extra-ordinary powers of the state in driving gentrification. It also reveals the increasing importance of the private sector initiating large-scale redevelopment and displacement. In addition, women are involved in or affected by gentrification in different ways in different parts of the city. Besides being an agent of gentrification, women are also the prominent segment of the urban population who are most vulnerable to displacement. The scale of gentrification and displacement is extensive in Hong Kong. The criticism by some researchers that gentrification is a highly limited process within small areas of the inner city is challenged by this research. This study of gentrification across an entire city shows that capital reinvestment and displacement is extensive and affects large areas of the city. Key words: Hong Kong gentrification PCA and cluster analysis qualitative analysis redevelopment displacement ACKNOWLEDGMENTS During my PhD years I have received support and encouragement from a number of people. Without their help, this dissertation would not have been possible. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Igor Vojnovic. Dr. Vojnovic has been a mentor, role model and a good friend. I would like to thank him for his advice on academic and professional development. I also appreciate his inspiration, patience and caring. His excellent guidance has made my PhD years a thoughtful and rewarding journey. Heartfelt thanks goes out to my dissertation committee, consisting of Dr. Guo Chen, Dr. Peilei Fan, Dr. Joseph Messina, and Dr. Bruce Pigozzi for their valuable advice on the dissertation and in other areas of professional growth. I would also like to thank Dr. Laura Reese for facilitating funding at different stages of my PhD program. She also provided important personal and professional guidance. I owe the greatest debt to the Department of Geography, the Social Science Dean’s Office and the Graduate School for the research awards and financial support; without them I would not have been able to conduct this research. I am forever indebted to my family. This dissertation would have never become possible if it were not for the unconditional love and support of my parents, sisters and brother. I owe them more gratitude than words can capture. Special thanks goes to my husband Xiaoyi Mu who was always there with support and encouragement. He stood by me through the good times and the bad. This dissertation is dedicated to my newborn daughter Lansing Mu who came to my life on December 19th, 2013 and shares with me the joy of this long, yet wonderful journey. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... xi Chapter 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1 1.1. Background ............................................................................................................ 1 1.2. Statement of problem ............................................................................................. 4 1.3. The general hypothesis .......................................................................................... 6 1.4. Research methods and dissertation outline ............................................................ 7 1.4.1. Research methods ............................................................................................ 7 1.4.2. Outline of the dissertation ............................................................................. 10 Chapter 2 Literature Review ............................................................................................. 13 2.1. The definition and causes of gentrification ......................................................... 13 2.2. Diversity of gentrification .................................................................................... 18 2.2.1. Diversity in the nature of capital reinvestment ............................................. 19 2.2.1.1. Refurbishment ....................................................................................... 20 2.2.1.2. Private-sector blockbusting ................................................................... 21 2.2.1.3. Urban renewal ....................................................................................... 22 2.2.1.4. Rural gentrification ............................................................................... 23 2.2.2. The diverse nature of actors in gentrification ................................................ 26 2.2.2.1. Super-gentrification .............................................................................. 26 2.2.2.2. Studentification ..................................................................................... 28 2.2.2.3. Gayification........................................................................................... 29 2.2.3. Commentary .................................................................................................. 30 2.3. Gentrification and displacement .......................................................................... 31 2.4. The gender dimensions of gentrification ............................................................. 33 2.5. Gentrification in the Chinese context .................................................................. 37 2.5.1. Gentrification in Mainland China ................................................................. 39 2.5.2. Gentrification in Hong Kong ......................................................................... 42 2.6. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 53 Chapter 3 The research area: Hong Kong ......................................................................... 56 3.1. Location and brief introduction ........................................................................... 56 3.2. Urban development in Hong Kong ...................................................................... 62 3.2.1. The development during colonial period: before 1980 ................................. 62 3.2.2. Urban development in transition: from 1980 to 1997 ................................... 64 3.2.3. Postcolonial development: from 1997 to present .......................................... 65 3.3. Economic restructuring in Hong Kong ................................................................ 68 3.4. Urban redevelopment initiatives and policies in Hong Kong .............................. 70 3.5. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 79 v Chapter 4 Quantitative Analysis ....................................................................................... 81 4.1. Data selection ......................................................................................................