US Department TECHNOLOGY of Agriculture TRANSFER FIELD GUIDE FOR THE BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF WEEDS IN EASTERN NORTH AMERICA Rachel L. Winston, Carol B. Randall, Bernd Blossey, Philip W. Tipping, Ellen C. Lake, and Judy Hough-Goldstein Forest Health Technology FHTET-2016-04 Enterprise Team April 2017 The Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team (FHTET) was created in 1995 by the Deputy Chief for State and Private Forestry, USDA, Forest Service, to develop and deliver technologies to protect and improve the health of American forests. This book was published by FHTET as part of the technology transfer series. http://www.fs.fed.us/foresthealth/technology/ Cover photos: Purple loosestrife (Jennifer Andreas, Washington State University Extension), Galerucella calmariensis (David Cappaert, Michigan State University, bugwood.org), tropical soda apple ((J. Jeffrey Mullahey, University of Florida, bugwood.org), Gratiana boliviana (Rodrigo Diaz, Louisiana State University), waterhyacinth (Chris Evans, University of Illinois, bugwood.org), Megamelus scutellaris (Jason D. Stanley, USDA ARS, bugwood.org), mile-a-minute weed (Leslie J. Mehrhoff, University of Connecticut, bugwood.org), Rhinoncomimus latipes (Amy Diercks, bugwood.org) How to cite this publication: Winston, R.L., C.B. Randall, B. Blossey, P.W. Tipping, E.C. Lake, and J. Hough-Goldstein. 2017. Field Guide for the Biological Control of Weeds in Eastern North America. USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, Morgantown, West Virginia. FHTET-2016-04. 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Submit your completed form or letter to USDA by: (1) mail: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, D.C. 20250-9410; (2) fax: (202) 690-7442; or (3) email: [email protected]. USDA is an equal opportunity provider, employer, and lender. The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this publication is for the information and convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute an official endorsement or approval by the U.S. Department of Agriculture or the Forest Service of any product or service to the exclusion of others that may be suitable. Federal Recycling Program Printed on Recycled Paper BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF WEEDS IN EASTERN NORTH AMERICA Rachel L. Winston Carol Bell Randall Environmental Consultant Entomologist, Forest Health Protection MIA Consulting, LLC USDA Forest Service Sandpoint, ID Coeur d’Alene, ID [email protected] [email protected] Bernd Blossey Philip W. Tipping Associate Professor for Natural Resources Research Leader Cornell University, Department of USDA-ARS Invasive Plant Research Lab Natural Resources Fort Lauderdale, FL Ithaca, NY [email protected] [email protected] Ellen C. Lake Judy Hough-Goldstein Research Entomologist Professor for Entomology USDA-ARS Invasive Plant Research Lab University of Delaware, Department of Fort Lauderdale, FL Entomology & Wildlife Ecology [email protected] Newark, DE [email protected] For additional copies of this publication, contact: Richard Reardon Carol Bell Randall FHTET Forest Health Protection USDA Forest Service USDA Forest Service 180 Canfield Street 2502 E. Sherman Ave. Morgantown, WV 26505 Coeur d’Alene, ID 83814 304.285.1566 208.769-3051 [email protected] [email protected] Acknowledgments Significant help in reviewing and compiling select content in this field guide was provided by Robert Bourchier (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada), William L. Bruckart, III (USDA, ARS, FDWSRU), Greg Wheeler (USDA ARS), and Donald Davis (The Pennsylvania State University). Some of the material in this guide was revised from the sister guide “Biological Control of Weeds in the Northwest”. We acknowledge and express our appreciation for the additional authors of that guide: Rosemarie De Clerck-Floate, Alec McClay, Jennifer Andreas, and Mark Schwarzlaender. The layout of this guide was designed by Rachel Winston. We would like to thank all of the photographers who granted permission for the use of photos. We also extend our gratitude to Richard Reardon (Forest Service-Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team) for producing this guide. Field Guide Components Efficacy Quick Reference Guide 4 Introduction 8 About This Field Guide 8 Biological Control of Weeds 10 Selected Plant Features 12 Life Cycle 12 Duration 12 Typical Leaf Arrangement and Margination 13 Flower Heads 13 Biological Control Agent Life Cycles 14 Insects 14 Mites 16 Nematodes 16 Fungi 16 Table of Contents of Table Scientific Name Changes 17 Collection Methods 18 Transport Considerations 20 Releasing Biocontrol Agents 22 Monitoring Biocontrol Agents 24 Additional Considerations 27 Weed Biocontrol Systems 28 Weed species are arranged first by flower color, then grouped by related species and listed alphabetically. All biocontrol agents introduced or established on each weed are included in that weed’s section, listed according to efficacy on the target weed. To look up a particular biocontrol agent or weed, refer to the index at the back of this guide. Pinkish-Purple Flowers 28 Knapweeds 28 Diffuse knapweed, Centaurea diffusa 30 Spotted knapweed, Centaurea stoebe 32 Purple loosestrife, Lythrum salicaria 62 Eurasian watermilfoil, Myriophyllum spicatum 70 Swallow-worts 74 Black swallow-wort, Vincetoxicum nigrum 74 Pale swallow-wort, Vincetoxicum rossicum 76 Thistles 80 Bull thistle, Cirsium vulgare 82 Canada thistle, Cirsium arvense 84 Musk thistle, Carduus nutans 86 Waterhyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes 108 Yellow Flowers 118 Table of Contents of Table Tansy ragwort, Jacobaea vulgaris 118 Common St. Johnswort, Hypericum perforatum 130 Toadflaxes 142 Dalmatian toadflax, Linaria dalmatica 142 Yellow toadflax, Linaria vulgaris 144 Green Flowers 160 Mile-a-minute weed, Persicaria perfoliata 160 Spurges 164 Cypress spurge, Euphorbia crassipes 164 Leafy spurge, Euphorbia esula 166 Tree-of-heaven, Ailanthus altissima 190 White Flowers 194 Alligatorweed, Alternanthera philoxeroides 194 Scentless chamomile, Tripleurospermum inodorum 202 Poison hemlock, Conium maculatum 210 Hydrilla, Hydrilla verticillata 214 Knotweeds 222 Bohemian knotweed, Fallopia xbohemica 222 Giant knotweed, Fallopia sachalinensis 224 Japanese knotweed, Fallopia japonica 226 Melaleuca, Melaleuca quinquenervia 230 Multiflora rose, Rosa multiflora 240 Brazilian peppertree, Schinus terebinthifolius 244 Tropical soda apple, Solanum viarum 248 Waterlettuce, Pistia stratiotes 254 Does not or Rarely Flowers 260 Air-potato, Dioscorea bulbifera 260 Old World climbing fern, Lygodium microphyllum 264 Salvinias 272 Common salvinia, Salvinia minima 272 Giant salvinia, Salvinia molesta 274 Current Studies in Weed Biocontrol 278 Glossary 282 Selected References 290 Appendix 326 Biocontrol Agent Monitoring Form 326 Vegetation Monitoring Form 327 Species Index 328 Efficacy Quick Reference Guide In this quick reference, weed species are arranged in the order they appear in this guide: first by flower color, grouped by related species, and then listed alphabetically. Weeds that do not flower are colored gray. The biocontrol agents presently available (as of 2016) for each weed are then arranged according to their individual efficacy. Please note that efficacy designations are very broad. Some biocontrol agents thrive in certain settings and are ineffective in others. The following broad categories are used: US Can Individual Biocontrol Agent Status High priority; recommended for release/redistribution Medium priority, recommended to complement other agents or control methods Quick Reference Quick Low priority; typically low impact and/or survival Caution when redistributing; not recommended for use in all areas Illegal to redistribute ? ? Ongoing releases, but establishment not yet confirmed Released, but failed to establish Status Organism Page Status Organism Page Diffuse knapweed Spotted knapweed 32 Centaurea diffusa 30 Centaurea stoebe Larinus minutus 36 Cyphocleonus achates 34 Sphenoptera jugoslavica 40 Larinus obtusus 38 Cyphocleonus