NOTES ON HINDUISM Note: Many "Hindus" prefer the name "Sanatana Dharma" (Eternal Truth) for their religion. "Hinduism" – meaning "the religions of the Indians" – is a term that was probably introduced by the British in the 18th century. BASIC BELIEFS The origins of Hinduism have been dated as early as 3000 BC. It is a rich religious and cultural tradition containing and encompassing many diverse and even conflicting beliefs and practices. While there is, in Hinduism, no rigidly enforced set of doctrines or dogmas, there is a configuration of themes and claims that represents a generally agreed upon Hindu belief system. 1. Hindus believe in a single Supreme Reality known as Brahman, which is the ultimate source of the cosmos and all things in it. Some Hindus consider Brahman to be God, a savior to be loved and worshiped; others think of it as a Transcendent and Unmanifest Absolute, a Ground of Being, without any of the characteristics traditionally attributed to "God" by religious believers. The three main characteristics of Brahman are sat (absolute being), chit (absolute consciousness and knowledge), and ananda (absolute bliss). The Supreme Reality in its transcendent, absolute, and unmanifest essence is called Nirguna-Brahman (unrevealed, "without attributes"); in its revealed or manifest nature, it is called Saguna-Brahman ("with attributes"). There are three major manifestations of Saguna-Brahman: Brahma (God the Creator), Vishnu (God the Preserver) and Shiva (God the Destroyer). Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva (the Trimurti, the "three forms" of Brahman) are not really three distinct deities in addition to the supreme Brahman; rather, they are the three ways in which Brahman is manifested in the cosmos and in which Brahman appears to human consciousness. There are many denominations and sects of Hinduism, but the three major forms are Shivaism (Saivism) (devotion to Shiva), Shaktism (Saktism) (worship of and devotion to mother goddesses, especially the divine wives of Shiva such as Durga and Kali), and Vishnuism (Vaishnavism) (devoted to Vishnu and his incarnations [avatara] such as Rama and Krishna). 2. Hindus believe that there is a beginningless and endless cosmic evolutionary process known as samsara. Within that process, universes are created, evolve through time, and then dissolve. On the worldly plane, the samsaric cycle of creation, preservation, and dissolution of worlds goes on forever. Souls enmeshed in samsara are inevitably subject to suffering. 3. Part of the samsaric process is the law of karma, the law of cause and effect by which each individual works out his own spiritual evolution through "his thoughts, words, and deeds." The main idea here is that, as you shape your own destiny through your manner of existence and action, you reap what you sow. 4. As an extension of the doctrines of samsara and karma, Hindus believe in transmigration and reincarnation of the soul (jiva). The soul transmigrates from life to life, living many lives and suffering many deaths, until it has relieved itself of its karmic burden. When all aspects and consequences of one's karma – good as well as bad – are resolved, the soul is then liberated from the limitations of finite existence, transcends ego-consciousness in a realization of its True Self (Atman), and finally achieves union with Brahman. 5. Hindus believe that all souls (jivas) are evolving toward true self-knowledge (knowledge of Atman) and union with Brahman and will ultimately find moksha – spiritual knowledge (vidya) of Self and God and liberation from the cycle of rebirth (karma and samsara). Not a single soul will be eternally deprived of this destiny. All souls ultimately achieve moksha. There is no eternal hell, no damnation. Hinduism is a mystical religion, leading the devotee to personally experience True Reality (Brahman-Atman), finally reaching the pinnacle of consciousness where Self (Atman) and God (Brahman) are one (God-Consciousness, God- Realization). 6. Hindus believe that we can gain knowledge (vidya) of the True Self (Atman) and of the Transcendent Absolute (God, Brahman) through self-discipline, morally upright action, and meditation (yoga), especially under the guidance of spiritually awakened and enlightened masters or gurus. 7. There are three major paths (margas) to salvation (liberation): Jñana Marga, the path of intellectual advancement and meditation; Karma Marga, the path of selfless social and religious; Bhakti Marga, the path of religious-spiritual love and devotion focused on a chosen god such as Vishnu or Shiva. (Some authorities 1 list a 4th path, namely, Raja Yoga – the life of rigorous yogic meditation [see Huston Smith's detailed discussion of these paths/yogas in his The World's Religions (Harper, 1991), pp. 26-50.]) 8. Hindus believe that many supernatural beings – devas, good spirits, something like angels – exist on the spiritual plane. We can enter into communion with these spiritual beings through temple worship, religious rituals and sacraments, and personal devotions (including scripture study). Both ceremonial worship (puja) and personal love of and devotion to "the gods" (bhakti) bring us into association with the "higher powers." 9. Hindus believe that all life is sacred and that it is to be loved and revered, and they therefore encourage the practice ahimsa or non-injury (non-violence). 10. Hindus believe that no particular religion teaches the only way to salvation above all others. All religious paths lead to "God" and "salvation" and are thus deserving of tolerance and understanding (although Hinduism is the most direct and effective path). 11. Hindus believe that there are four acceptable goals of life: pleasure (kama), worldly success (artha), performance of duty (dharma), and spiritual liberation (moksha). 12. Hindus believe that there are four stages (ashramas) in an ideal life: student (Brahmacharya), householder (Garhasthya), forest dweller (hermit) (Vanaprasthya), and realized (enlightened) being (Sannyasin, Sadhu, wandering ascetic). After fulfilling the duties of student and householder, retirement to the life of a spiritual seeker (forest dweller) is encouraged or at least allowed. The forest dweller who seeks and finds, who achieves enlightenment or a state of consciousness and being close to it, enters the fourth stage of the ideal life, that of the sannyasin, a holy one, who has renounced all worldly things and transcended all selfish interests in his concentration on complete union with Brahman. 13. Hindus believe that the ideal society is organized into four main classes or "castes" (varnas): Brahmins (priests and intellectuals), Kshatriyas (political and military leaders and administrators), Vaisyas (skilled technicians, economic leaders, and other "producers"), and Shudras (laborers and servants). Traditionally, the lowest orders of the Shudras were considered Pariahs, i.e., outcastes and untouchables. Since 1955, when untouchability was outlawed in India, the latter groups have been known as "Scheduled Castes." Over the centuries the four main castes have subdivided into numerous sub-castes (jatis). THE SACRED LITERATURE OF HINDUISM 1. Canonical literature (shruti, "that which is heard") (the primary sacred scriptures of Hinduism) The Vedas (veda = "sacred knowledge"): Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda The divisions of the four Vedas: (1) Samhitas ("collections" of hymns, prayers, rites, mantras, and magical incantations and spells) (c. 1500-900 BC) (2) Brahmanas (commentaries on and liturgical arrangements of the Samhitas for use in worship services) (c. 850 BC) (3) Aranyakas ("Forest Treatises" on the use of the Samhitas and the practice of meditation by "forest dwellers," those who have retired from society to the forests in search of spiritual liberation) (c. 500 BC) (4) Upanishads (also known as Vedanta, "end of the Vedas;" philosophical writings on major themes of Hinduism such as Brahman, Atman, samsara, karma, moksha, etc.) (c. 500 BC) 2. Non-canonical literature (smriti, "tradition," "that which is remembered") The great epics: the Mahabharata, which includes the Bhagavad Gita; and the Ramayana (all composed between 1000 BC and 200 AD; date of Gita c. 200 BC) The Puranas ("Antiquities"): popular, poetic writings on humanity and the gods (composed between 1000 BC and 200 AD) The Tantras (Agamas): sectarian scriptures of Shivaism and Shaktism (c. 8th century AD) The Dharma Shastras: treatises on duty and justice – the Artha Shastra (economic principles); the Manu Shastra ("Laws of Manu," social and moral life); the Shastra of Vajnavalkya (justice and order in 2 the life of the individual); and the Kama Shastra (the orderly and effective pursuit of pleasure) (all composed between 1000 BC and 200 AD; the date of the Manu Shastra c. 200 BC) The Sutras (c. 500 BC - 500 AD) and Commentaries (c. 500-1500 AD) of Philosophical Hinduism (Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa, and Vedanta schools) Writings of modern Hindu saints and philosophers (1800 AD - present) (e.g., Ramakrishna, Vivekenanda, Aurobindo, Radhakrishnan, Gandhi) 3 .