A TALL TALE: THE MYTH OF SEXUAL DIMORPHISM AND THE QUEERING OF HETEROSEXUAL BODIES IN AYA NAKARA’S LOVELY COMPLEX by CASSANDRA SMITH A THESIS Presented to the Department of Women’s and Gender Studies and the Robert D. Clark Honors College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Arts June 2017 An Abstract of the Thesis of Cassandra Smith for the degree of Bachelor of Arts in the Department of Women’s and Gender Studies to be taken June 2017 Title: A Tall Tale: The Myth of Sexual Dimorphism and the Queering Heterosexual Bodies in Aya Nakahara’s Lovely Complex Approved: _______________________________________ Ernesto Javier Martinez Human sexual dimorphism has been employed in the creation and perpetuation of naturalized heteronormativity and essentialist gender roles on the basis of biological differences. The connection between size and gender is often made evident within expectations of what a heterosexual couple must look like, with the man taller and the woman smaller. The following is a queer and feminist theoretical analysis of Aya Nakahara’s Lovely Complex, a shojo anime that follows a taller than average high school girl and her failure to properly perform femininity within the norms of her social context. Her romance with a shorter than average male peer provides a platform for this analysis, which aims to reveal the heteronormative myth of sexual dimorphism. Heterosexual bodies which cannot successfully and seamlessly inhabit the heteronormative dimorphic spaces around them are effectively queered by those spaces. This queering is important to understand by way of attending to the process of negotiating and deconstructing heterosexual dimorphism, as well as the ways in which heterosexuals creatively achieve feelings of “comfort” in spaces that are actually restrictive and that have never allowed them to feel comfortable before. ii Acknowledgements I would like to thank my primary advisory, Professor Ernesto Martinez, for sticking with me throughout this project and the many obstacles along the way. This paper would not have been the same without his mentorship and guidance in the thesis process, or his support and encouragement throughout my years at the University of Oregon as a Women’s and Gender Studies major. I would also like to thank Professors Kelly Sutherland and Alisa Freedman, who were not only the rest of my thesis committee, but also indispensible to my undergraduate experience at large. I extend my endless gratitude to every exceptional faculty member who believed in me along the way, helping me to grow as both a scholar and a human being. I would not be here today, or who I am today, without the love and support of my incredibly generous parents, whose hard work made this hard work possible. Last but far from least, I would like to thank my loving friends and my brilliant partner for their unwavering patience and encouragement throughout this difficult but rewarding journey. iii Table of Contents Introduction 1 Lovely Complex in the Context of Globalization, Gender Play, and Shojo Aesthetics 7 Representations of Successful Sexual Dimorphism and Aesthetic Performance in Lovely Complex 14 Queering of Space, Experimental Embodiments, and Creative Transgressions 24 Conclusion 53 Works Cited 56 iv Introduction Sexual dimorphism—the difference in appearance between males and females of the same species— is often referenced in order to naturalize social differences between men and women, as well as maintain gender role expectations in the interest of heterosexual reproduction. Sexual dimorphism is relied upon as phenotypical “proof” for the belief in the “innate” and “obvious” differences between the sexes. Ironically, however, this correlation between phenotype and innate social role differentiation has led to a coercive understanding of sexual dimorphism, requiring certain forms of exaggerated phenotypical differentiation and impacting ideals for physical attractiveness. Height, for example, is an observable trait of human physicality that has congealed over time to have socially constructed meanings in relation to heterosexual gender roles and understandings of attractiveness. In many societies, men are expected to be taller than the women they are attracted to, and women are likewise expected to be attracted to “taller” men.1 While actual mating preferences often reflect this pattern, it is too often presumed that this outcome is a consequence of innate, biological predispositions. In a study on reproductive success, Daniel Nettle found that taller than average men have the most reproductive success, while shorter than average women have the most reproductive success (Nettle, 1919-1922). As far as an evolutionary hypothesis, it make sense for heterosexual women to prefer larger men as a way to ensure likelihood of survival, which mirrors other mammalian mate selection strategies. This preference appears to have survived, despite the fact that, as Nettle points out, 1 On assumptions about body size and gendered traits explored in feminist theory see Wilchins 2013, Beauvoir 1973, Young 2005 fitness-related, “direct selection pressures may well be relaxed under more recent living conditions” (1922). In other words, from an evolutionary standpoint, we no longer need to select mates based on who can protect us in battle or from predators, but women continue to select for taller men. Further confounding evolutionary arguments is the fact that, according to Nettle, men are not selecting for taller women, and are instead mostly selecting for shorter than average women (1920-22). Nettle does not see an obvious answer as to why a taller height in women is not being selected for. If “height is highly heritable and polygenic… taller women would have taller sons” (1922). With a higher chance of giving birth to taller sons and helping to guarantee the survival of his genetic lineage, it would make sense that “a male preference for tallness in a mate would also evolve, unless there were some fairly direct counter- acting pressure” (1922). Nettle’s caveat about a potential “counter-acting pressure” functioning to skew evolutionary rationales for selecting tall mates of any gender, offers us an opportunity to clarify how height (as it relates to “attractiveness”) is imbued with culturally specific, socially constructed gendered meanings. As Piotr Sorokowski and his colleagues have concluded in multiple anthropological studies, the patterns for selection of mates based on sexual dimorphism in stature (SDS) are too inconsistent across world cultures to be considered universal or linked to essentialist, “biological” gender norms (Sorokowski et. al, “Body Height Preferences”). Instead, there is far more evidence to suggest that cultural norms and pressures within a given social context have a stronger influence on the actual dimorphism observed in heterosexual couples.2 2 For more on the cultural variations in SDS preferences and the adjusting of scope relative to dating pool size, see Sorokowski et. al 2012 (two studies in 2012), 2015, Salska et. al 2008, Stulp et. al 2012, 2013, Fink et. al 2007, Pawloski 2003 2 “Heteronormativity” is perhaps the most tangible example of a socially constructed pressure influencing dominant heterosexual mate selection. First articulated as “compulsory heterosexuality” by Adrienne Rich, heteronormativity refers to the ways that non-heterosexual desire or non-normative gender expression is marginalized and oppressed by setting heterosexuality as the naturalized default. This compulsory default is coercively engrained—through institutions, policies, practices, and discourses—to the point that heterosexuality is experienced as normal, seamless, invisible, and automatic, making any other sexual desire or identity divergent or even intolerable.3 However, in this paper I call attention to the power of heteronormativity to restrict people with normative heterosexual desires, and how it coerces them to perform heterosexuality in specific ways. Heteronormativity is a force capable of policing more than one’s sexual orientation. Feminist and queer theorists often make a point to separate and validate the different ways that one can inhabit gender and sexual identity, distinguishing between gender identity, gender expression, and sexual orientation, and how one is not indicative of the others. For example, a person who identifies as male could dress very femininely, and have only heterosexual desires, despite the common stereotypical assumption that “feminine men” are “gay.” While it is possible for some spaces to hold this understanding of fluidity and multiplicity, dominant spaces of heteronormativity are not so flexible. In other words, heteronormativity applies not only to a societal reinforcement of heterosexuality as the 3 On heteronormativity and the implicit oppression of non-heterosexual or non-cisgender people: See Rich 1980, Rubin 1994, Waner 1991, Pitman 1999 On anti-LGBT violence, see D’haese et. al 2015, Meyer 2008, Stotzer 2009 3 norm, but also to certain physical traits as being associated with femininity and masculinity. It is not enough for a heterosexual woman, for example, to be sexually and romantically interested in the opposite sex. She must also inhabit certain constructed gender norms to signal heterosexuality and to be attractive to potential partners. A woman who is interested in men is not automatically meeting the demands of heteronormativity; she must also make her body conform to sexually dimorphic expectations, dressing, behaving, and