FREEDOM FREEDOM Human rights matter on the internet. Without freedom of expression, people OF cannot participate in everything that the information society has to offer. EXPRESSION Yet online free speech is in danger. Between state laws, private rules and OF EXPRESSION algorithms, full participation in the online communicative space faces many challenges. This publication explores the profound impact of the internet on AND THE INTERNET free expression and how it can be effectively secured online. AND THE The second, updated edition of this introduction into the protection of freedom of expression online answers essential questions regarding the extent and limits of freedom of expression online and the role of social INTERNET networks, courts, states and organisations in online communication spaces. In clear language, with vivid examples spanning two decades of internet law, the authors answer questions on freedom of expression in cyberspace. – Addressing issues from the protection of bloggers to the right to access online information, the publication also shows the importance of the edition 2nd revised and Updated standard-setting, monitoring and promotion activities of international and non-governmental organisations and includes a chapter on relevant national practice. It pays special attention to the role of European human rights law and the Council of Europe as this region’s most important human rights organisation. An invaluable resource for students of law, politics, international relations and technology as well as for diplomats and civil society actors, this publication demonstrates how the Council of Europe contributes to ensuring that everyone’s voice online can be heard. This is key to sustainable, human rights- oriented and people-centred digitalisation. Prems 006020 Prems ENG The Council of Europe is the continent’s leading Wolfgang Benedek human rights organisation. It comprises 47 member Updated and revised states, including all members of the European and Matthias C. Kettemann Union. All Council of Europe member states have 2nd edition www.coe.int signed up to the European Convention on Human Rights, a treaty designed to protect human rights, democracy and the rule of law. The European Court of Human Rights oversees the implementation of the Convention in the member states. http://book.coe.int €29/US$58 ISBN 978-92-871-9023-9 FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION AND THE INTERNET Wolfgang Benedek and Matthias C. Kettemann Updated and revised 2nd edition Council of Europe Publishing The opinions expressed in this work are the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy of the Council of Europe. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated, reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic (CD-Rom, internet, etc.) or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the Directorate of Communication (F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex or [email protected]). Cover photo: Shutterstock Cover design: Documents and Publications Production Department, Council of Europe Layout: Jouve, Paris Council of Europe Publishing F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex http://book.coe.int ISBN 978-92-871-9023-9 © Council of Europe, August 2020 Printed at the Council of Europe Contents LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 7 TABLE OF CASES 11 PREFACE 17 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION: THE CHALLENGES OF ENSURING FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION ON THE INTERNET 23 CHAPTER 2. THE CONTENT OF FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION ONLINE 29 2.1. Main elements of the right 29 2.1.1. Freedom of opinion 32 2.1.2. Freedom of information 33 2.1.3. Freedom of the press and media 36 2.1.4. Freedom of international communication 39 2.1.5. Freedom of artistic expression 40 2.1.6. Freedom of cultural expression 41 2.1.7. Freedom of science 42 2.1.8. A new freedom? Internet freedom and openness 43 2.1.9. Right to anonymity 44 2.1.10. Right to whistle-blowing 45 2.2. Corollary rights: freedom of assembly and association, and the rights to education and access to knowledge 46 2.3. Right to access to the internet 49 CHAPTER 3. RESTRICTIONS ON FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION ONLINE 55 3.1. Principles and problems 55 3.2. Criteria for restrictions and the practice of the Court in internet cases 57 3.2.1. Criteria for restrictions 57 3.2.2. The practice of the Court 58 The margin of appreciation 58 The role of context 60 Protection of the rights of others 61 Information already available on the internet 62 Specific responsibilities of the media 63 Responsibilities of politicians 64 3.3. Conclusion 65 CHAPTER 4. STANDARD SETTING BY THE COUNCIL OF EUROPE AND NON-STATE ACTORS 67 4.1. The context: the role of human rights in internet governance 67 4.2. Activities of the Council of Europe: awareness-raising and standard setting 68 4.2.1. Recommendations and declarations 69 4.2.2. Guidelines and recommendations for business 79 4.3. Activities of non-state actors 84 4.3.1. The Charter of Human Rights and Principles for the internet 84 Page 3 4.3.2. Standard setting in the private sector 85 4.3.3. Transparency to protect freedom of expression 87 CHAPTER 5. SPECIFIC ISSUES 91 5.1. Internet content regulation and freedom of expression 92 5.2. Information and disinformation 93 5.2.1. The consequences of misinformation 94 5.3. Technological neutrality and freedom of expression 95 5.4. Network neutrality and freedom of expression 96 5.5. Characteristics of protected and unprotected speech online 98 5.6. Fighting online hate speech 99 5.7. Defamation, reputation and freedom of expression online 105 5.8. Protection of children in light of freedom of expression 109 5.9. Freedom of expression and internet domain names 110 5.10. The role of internet intermediaries: reconfiguring their rights and duties 114 5.11. Regulatory approaches to freedom of expression in social networks 117 5.12. Private and public spaces on the internet 120 5.13. Freedom of expression and algorithms 124 5.13.1. Training data 126 5.13.2. Overblocking 127 5.13.3. Lack of explainability 127 5.14. Whistle-blowing as a human right 129 5.15. Transcending the national level 131 CHAPTER 6. RELEVANT PRACTICE ON THE NATIONAL LEVEL 133 6.1. Jurisdiction and freedom of expression online 134 6.1.1. France v. US and Yahoo v. LICRA: a tale of two countries and two courts 134 6.1.2. UK: the internet comes under national jurisdiction 135 6.1.3. European Union: the right to be forgotten and its limits 136 6.1.4. Austria: worldwide obligation to search for unlawful content? 137 6.2. Access and freedom of expression online 139 6.2.1. Europe: restrictions placed on prisoners’ access to certain sites 140 6.2.2. China and Turkey: blocking access to Wikipedia 141 6.2.3. India: shutdown of internet access and cell phone services in Kashmir 142 6.2.4. Internet access as a protected right in 20 Council of Europe member states 143 Germany: the internet as an essential part of life 144 Finland: a right to broadband? 145 6.2.5. Cloudflare terminates service for 8chan in response to US shootings 145 6.3. Copyright and freedom of expression online 146 6.3.1. France: the limits to enforcing copyright 146 6.3.2. European Parliament: EU Copyright Directive 147 6.3.3. Italy: Court holds video-sharing platform liable for content uploaded by users 148 6.4. Public and private violations of freedom of expression online 149 6.4.1. Hate speech disrupts freedom of expression online 149 6.4.2. Germany’s Network Enforcement Act 150 6.4.3. Singapore: bill to fight misinformation 158 6.4.4. Russia: criminalisation of online content that ‘disrespects’ the government 159 Page 4 Freedom of expression and the internet 6.5. Powerful internet companies and national laws: who wins the battle for freedom of expression? 160 6.5.1. Google Italy: personalising (criminal) liability for online content 160 6.5.2. UK: publisher’s liability for Google confirmed 161 6.5.3. Social media platforms remove Chinese state-sponsored disinformation campaign targeting Hong Kong 162 6.6. Business and freedom of expression online 163 6.6.1. Tajikistan: no complicity of companies in censorship 163 6.6.2. EU: does the export of censorship and surveillance technology violate human rights? 164 CHAPTER 7. EUROPEAN MONITORING MECHANISMS 167 7.1. Council of Europe Internet Governance Strategy 167 7.2. Monitoring by Council of Europe bodies 168 7.2.1. The Committee of Ministers 168 7.2.2. The Parliamentary Assembly 169 7.2.3. The Secretary General 170 7.2.4. The Commissioner for Human Rights 171 7.2.5. The European Court of Human Rights 172 7.2.6. The Council of Europe’s other monitoring bodies 173 The European Committee on Social Rights 173 The Advisory Committee for the Protection of National Minorities 174 The European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) 175 7.2.7. Capacity-building 176 7.3. Monitoring by the OSCE and the EU 177 7.3.1. The OSCE 177 7.3.2. The EU 177 7.4. European hotlines 179 7.5. Civil society watchdogs 182 CHAPTER 8. PROMOTION OF FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION ONLINE 185 8.1. The Council of Europe 185 8.2. The European Union 188 8.3. The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) 190 8.4. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 193 8.5. The UN Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Opinion and Expression 195 8.6. Initiatives by individual states 196 CHAPTER 9.