Exploring the Techniques of Disciplinary Power: The Management of the Low-Income Migrant Worker along the Asia-Abu Dhabi Migration Corridor A Thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of PhD in the Faculty of Humanities 2018 Michael S. Cowen Manchester Business School People, Management and Organisations TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS 2 TABLES and FIGURES 6 ABBREVIATIONS 7 ARABIC TRANSLATIONS 8 ABSTRACT 9 DECLARATION 10 COPYRIGHT STATEMENT 11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 12 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 13 1.1 The study of Management and Migration: Geographic gaps and conceptual approach 14 1.1.1 Geographic gap in CMS’s knowledge of the management of workers 14 1.1.2 Conceptual approach in the knowledge of the management of workers 16 1.2 Introducing the Asia – Abu Dhabi Migration Corridor 20 1.2.1 Labour Exporting Countries: Philippines, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka 20 1.2.2 Labour Receiving Emirate of Abu Dhabi 24 1.3 Introducing Critical Management Studies 27 1.4 Aims and Scope of this Research 31 1.5 Thesis Structure 32 CHAPTER 2: ‘MANAGING’ THROUGH TECHNIQUES OF DISCIPLINARY POWER 38 2.1 Introducing some ‘trajectories’ of Management Theory 39 2.2 Management as Power 41 2.3 How to view Foucault’s concepts of Power? 44 2.4 Introducing Disciplinary Power 47 2.4.1 Techniques of Disciplinary Power: Dividing Practices 49 2.4.2 Techniques of Disciplinary Power: Scientific Classification 50 2.4.3 Techniques of Disciplinary Power: Subjectification 51 2.4.4 Techniques of Disciplinary Power: Surveillance 52 2.4.5 Summary of the Techniques of Disciplinary Power 53 2.5 Criticisms of Disciplinary Power 56 2.6 Chapter Conclusion 58 2 CHAPTER 3: REVIEW OF THE MIGRATION/MIGRANT WORKERS LITERATURE 60 3.1 Introducing Migration Studies 60 3.2 Migrant Workers and Management Studies: Previous Research 64 3.2.1 Research where the employer and recruiters are of central interest 65 3.2.2 Research from the migrant worker perspective 67 3.2.3 Research from labour process perspective 68 3.2.4 Research from union/community support perspectives 69 3.2.5 Summarising CMS work into Migrant Worker Studies 70 3.3 GCC based Migration/Migrant Workers Studies 71 3.3.1 The make-up of the Kafala System 74 3.3.2 Criticisms of the Kafala System and Other Conceptualisations 76 3.3.3 Attacks on UAE’s Human Rights Record and Responses 80 3.3.4 Summarising GCC based MS work 83 3.4 Degrees of Difference and Similarity between CMS and ‘Migration Studies’ 84 3.5 Chapter Conclusion 86 CHAPTER 4: WRESTLING WITH CRITICAL ETHNOGRAPHY 88 4.1 Situating this Ethnography within the broader Ethnographic Tradition 89 4.1.1 Introducing Ethnography 89 4.1.2 Adopting a Critical Ethnography 91 4.2 Assumptions in this Critical Ethnography 95 4.3 Establishing a Research Strategy 97 4.3.1 Multi-sited Ethnography 98 4.3.2 Abu Dhabi as a Site for Research 100 4.3.3 Getting too close through Participant Living 102 4.4 Research Design and Method 104 4.4.1 Recruitment of Migrant Workers to the study 104 4.4.2 Role conflicts 107 4.4.3 Interviews 109 4.4.4 Photography 112 4.4.5 Documentary Analysis 116 4.4.6 Observation and Access 116 4.4.7 International Research Trips 117 3 4.4.8 Collecting and Storing Data 118 4.4.9 Analysing Data & Writing 120 4.5 Chapter Conclusion 122 CHAPTER 5. MAKING THE MIGRANT WORKER 123 5.1 Multi-generational migrations 125 5.2 Migration Orientations 129 5.2.1 Pre-employment Orientations (PEO), Missions, and Awards 130 5.2.2 Pre-departure Orientations (PDO) 132 5.2.3 Post Arrival Orientation (PAO) 136 5.3 Maintaining work subject positions through Uniforming Bodies 138 5.3.1 The ubiquitous uniform in Abu Dhabi 139 5.3.2 Reinforcing Subjectification through the Uniform 144 5.4 Chapter Conclusion 148 CHAPTER 6. HYPER-MANAGEMENT OF THE MIGRANT WORKER IN THE 151 CARCERAL NET 6.1 Dividing Practices in the management of low-income migrant workers 152 6.1.1 Spatial and Temporal Separation of Low-income Migrant Workers 154 6.1.2 Camp Design and Surveillance 159 6.1.3 Room Design and Rules 165 6.1.4 Migrant Worker Hyper-management 170 6.2 The Low-income Migrant Worker as an Object of Knowledge 171 6.3 Hyper-Management of the low-income worker and the Carceral Net 177 6.4 Chapter Conclusion 182 CHAPTER 7. LIVING IN THE INSTERTICIAL SPACES OF THE CARCERAL NET: X- 185 FAMILY 7.1 Family and the gap in the Literature 188 7.2 Family’s ongoing role in the management of the low-income migrant worker 189 7.3 The emergence of X-Family 197 7.3.1 X-Family as support 197 7.3.2 Apartment X-Family, as exercising ‘freedom’ 200 7.3.3 When X-family threatens Family 205 4 7.4 Chapter Conclusion 210 CHAPTER 8. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 216 8.1 Introduction 216 8.2 Summary of the Thesis 217 8.3 Research Contributions 221 8.3.1 Contributions to Migration Studies: The ‘dismantling’ of the Kafala System 221 8.3.2 Contributions to CMS on the management of low-income migrant workers 227 8.4 Reflections on Critical Ethnography 242 8.5 Limitations 245 8.6 New Research Directions 246 REFERENCES 249 APPENDIX A – GRADATIONS OF MIGRANT WORKER CATEGORIES 280 APPENDIX B – REMITTANCE STATISTICS 282 APPENDIX C – LAWS AND INSTITUTIONS 284 APPENDIX D – CORE MIGRANT WORKER INTRODUCTIONS 285 APPENDIX E – 26 PROCEDURAL STEPS DOCUMENTED 289 APPENDIX F – DETAILED INTERVIEW SCHEDULE 292 APPENDIX G - SUMMARY OF TECHNIQUES OF DISCIPLINARY POWER IN THE 293 HYPER-MANAGEMENT OF WORKERS 82668 Words 5 TABLES Table 1.1 – Abu Dhabi Labour Statistics. Source - SCAD, 2014 26 Table 4.1 – Breakdown of Conducted Interviews 110 Table 8.1 – Relevance of elements of the Kafala System in Abu Dhabi 222 Table 8.2 – Diagram of Power of the Carceral Net 240 FIGURES Figure 4.1 – MW8 Photograph 114 Figure 4.2 – MW6 Photograph 115 Figure 5.1 – Poster from WARBE NGO, Bangladesh, 2014 127 Figure 5.2 – Department of Foreign Employment, Bangladesh, 2015 (Source: own photo) 130 Figure 5.3 – Dream Map. Source: NRCO Training Materials, Philippines 134 Figure 5.4 – A made up majliss, a shisha pipe, and two mannequins in Gulf dress 135 Figure 5.5 – Domestic Workers in “Pajamas” Bawadi Mall, 2013 143 Figure 5.6 – Local municipality worker checking migrant workers papers. Source. The 146 National. Figure 6.1 – Workers Village, Source Google Earth, 2014. 160 Figure 6.2 – Barbed wired fence customary in Labour Camps. (Source: Own photo) 163 Figure 6.3 – Chinacamp, preparing a meal in room 2014. (Source: Own photo) 164 Figure 6.4 – Camp Security, Source: Workers Village Brochure. 164 Figure 6-5 – Workers’ room in Al Ain Labour Camp, 2013. (Source: Own photo) 167 Figure 6.6 – Workers company bunk bed, labour camp, Al Ain. (Source: Own photo) 168 Figure 6.7 – Workers fixing bed bug problem, Chinacamp, 2014. (Source: Own photo) 169 Figure 7.1 – MW9 with her X-family. 198 Figure 7.2 – MW8 with his X-Family. 198 Figure 7.3 – Al Ain Labour Camp. 2014. (Source: MW8) 199 Figure 7.4 – Burning angel. Source MW4 204 Figure 7.5 – Cages. Source MW4 214 6 ABBREVIATIONS ADD – Abu Dhabi Dialogue ALFEA – Association of Licensed Foreign Employment Agencies, Sri Lanka BAIRA – Bangladesh Association of International Recruitment Agencies BMET – Bangladesh Ministry of Employment and Training BOESL – Bangladesh Overseas Employment and Services Limited CMS – Critical Management Studies DOFE – Department of Foreign Employment, Nepal FEPB – Foreign Employment Promotions Board, Nepal GCC – Gulf Cooperation Countries HRW – Human Rights Watch ILO – International Labour Organisation IOM – International Organisation for Migration ITUC – International Trade Union Confederation LPT – Labour Process Theory MMS – Mainstream Management Studies MOL – Ministry of Labour, Abu Dhabi (During the research it changed its name to Ministry of Human Resources and Emiratisation.) MS – Migration Studies NAFEA – National Association of Foreign Employment Agencies, Nepal NGO – Non-Governmental Organisation OWWA – Overseas Workers’ Welfare Administration, Philippines POEA – Philippines Overseas Employment Authority POLO – Philippines Overseas Labor Offices PRO – Public Relations Officer (HR role in charge of workers’ visa processing) SLBFE – Sri Lankan Bureau of Foreign Employment SLFEA – Sri Lanka Foreign Employment Agency TESDA – Technical Education and Skills Development Administration, Philippines UAE – United Arab Emirates UK – United Kingdom USA – United States of America 7 ARABIC TRANSLATIONS Habibi – My dear Kafala – Sponsorship Kafeel – Sponsor Kandora – Emirati Male Local Dress Majliss – Lounge, Social Gathering Area Wasta – To mean power, influence, not what you know – but who you know. 8 ABSTRACT The management of south-to-south workers’ migration and their lives remains an important issue in many circles as hundreds of thousands of these low-income migrant workers are often ‘positioned’ in precarious economic and social situations. This thesis develops a Critical Management Studies (CMS) focus to show that there are inherent power disparities and potential for worker exploitation in these practices. Based on an ethnographic study of the Asia to Abu Dhabi migration corridor this thesis explores the techniques of disciplinary power in the management of the low-income migrant worker. This thesis demonstrates that the low-income migrant worker is a deeply subjugated subject who is disciplined to live a responsible life of docility and work, and where his/her ‘life’ is deferred until they return home on vacation, or return at the end of their contract. There is also evidence of a 'diagram of power' that I term the Carceral Net, in which the techniques of disciplinary power are found to be juxtaposed with sovereign, social/juridical, and security technologies of power.