LIGHTHOUSES IN ANTIQUITY: CASE STUDIES OF THE LIGHTHOUSES AT DOVER, ENGLAND; PATARA, TURKEY; AND LEPTIS MAGNA, NORTH AFRICA A Thesis by REBECCA ELIZABETH MATTSON Submitted to the Office of Graduate and Professional Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Chair of Committee, Deborah N. Carlson Committee Members, Cemalettin Pulak Nancy Klein Head of Department, Cynthia Werner December 2018 Major Subject: Maritime Archaeology and Conservation Copyright 2018 Rebecca Mattson ABSTRACT There may have been upwards of 100 lighthouses in the Mediterranean, along the northern Atlantic coast, and in England during the Roman Imperial period. Lighthouses were simultaneously a common structure and triumphs of Roman engineering. They were statements of power, prestige, and identity. After the construction of the Pharos of Alexandria in 280 BCE, lighthouses came to be a typical monument in Roman harbors, and a beneficial invention that continue to be built today. Architecture has adapted and evolved over time, but lighthouses have maintained the same basic shape, structure, and function. Lighthouses are represented in the three artistic media of ancient evidence: archaeological remains, iconography, and primary (contemporary) sources. The data is uneven, however, because no ancient lighthouse known today has all three. A study of ancient lighthouses requires a holistic approach that utilizes archaeological remains, iconography, contemporary sources, historical sources, and modern scholarship. The following thesis reviews the artistic media, the history of and possible precursors to ancient lighthouses such as Bronze Age temples and Classical signal towers; the function of ancient lighthouses, and their illumination. Three case studies of the ancient lighthouses at Dover, England; Patara, Turkey; and Leptis Magna, North Africa are examined in detail. These three lighthouses differ in their historical context, dates, shape, placement, and construction materials. This thesis examines these criteria through the use of case studies and the analysis of archaeological remains, iconography, contemporary sources, and historical sources to construct a more complete view of ii ancient lighthouses. An in-depth study of the three lighthouses and the available evidence revealed that, although there are inconsistencies, archaeology, iconography, and contemporary sources can often each fill in the gaps where the other evidences are lacking and provide information about ancient lighthouses that we otherwise would not have. For example, archaeological remains provide information about lighthouse construction and materials, iconography offers clues regarding illumination and external construction, and contemporary sources indicate lighthouse placement and historical context. While a holistic study of ancient lighthouses cannot account for all missing information, the evidences often support one another and work together to provide a more comprehensive view on the subject. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work could not have been completed without the support of the people who guided and followed me through this journey. My committee chair, Dr. Deborah Carlson, deserves the utmost thanks for introducing me to this topic and for her patience, invaluable support, and contribution. I would also like to thank my committee members, Dr. Cemal Pulak and Dr. Nancy Klein for their guidance, support, and valued commentary throughout the course of this research. Thank you also to Allison Pennington for her edits and time, free of charge, and to Caroline Thirkhill for her help regarding Greek and Latin translations. Finally, I would like to thank my cohort in the Nautical Archaeology Program for making this journey a delight and truly priceless, my friends who followed me, supported me, and sometimes carried me through this process, and my parents, Scott and Caroline Mattson, for their never-ending support and faith in me. I owe you all everything and more. iv CONTRIBUTORS AND FUNDING SOURCES This work was supervised by a thesis committee consisting of Professor Carlson and Professor Pulak of the Department of Anthropology and Professor Klein of the Department of Architecture. All other work conducted for the thesis was completed by the student independently. Funding Sources There are no outside funding contributors to acknowledge related to the research and compilation of this document. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................... iv CONTRIBUTORS AND FUNDING SOURCES .................................................... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................... vi LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................. viii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND ....................................... 1 Challenges of the Data ............................................................... 1 Introduction to the Artistic Media of Evidence ......................... 3 Challenges of Contemporary Sources ....................................... 4 Iconography ............................................................................... 6 Seafaring at Night ...................................................................... 18 Function ..................................................................................... 21 Dual Function ............................................................................ 22 Multiple Lighthouses ................................................................. 27 Early Lighthouse Precursors ...................................................... 28 Illumination ................................................................................ 39 Illumination Materials ................................................................ 42 Illumination and Internal Construction ...................................... 47 Conclusion ................................................................................. 49 CHAPTER II THE ROMAN LIGHTHOUSE AT DOVER, ENGLAND .............. 50 Historical Background ............................................................... 50 The Classis Britannica and the Harbor at Dover ....................... 53 Excavations at Dover ................................................................. 56 Dating of the lighthouses ........................................................... 56 Placement ................................................................................... 58 Shape .......................................................................................... 61 Materials ..................................................................................... 66 Contemporary Sources and Epigraphy ....................................... 74 Historical Sources ....................................................................... 76 Conclusion .................................................................................. 77 vi CHAPTER III THE ROMAN LIGHTHOUSE AT PATARA, TURKEY ............... 79 Historical Background ................................................................. 80 History of the Lycian League ...................................................... 84 Historical Background of Patara ................................................. 87 Constructing the Patara lighthouse ............................................. 91 Epigraphy .................................................................................... 95 Construction and Funding of the Lighthouse .............................. 96 Placement .................................................................................... 102 Shape ........................................................................................... 103 Construction and Materials ......................................................... 106 Contemporary and Historical Sources ........................................ 110 Conclusion .................................................................................. 112 CHAPTER IV THE ROMAN LIGHTHOUSE AT LEPTIS MAGNA, NORTH AFRICA ............................................... 114 Historical Background ............................................................... 115 Excavations at Leptis Magna ..................................................... 117 Trade Interests of Leptis Magna ................................................ 119 The Building Program and Harbor Expansion of Septimius Severus ................................................................ 121 Decline and Destruction ............................................................ 126 Contemporary and Historical Sources ....................................... 129 Iconography ............................................................................... 130 Archaeological Remains and Dating the Lighthouse ................ 133 Placement .................................................................................. 136 Construction and Materials ....................................................... 138 Illumination ............................................................................... 140 Harbor Symbolism .................................................................... 141 Conclusion ...............................................................................