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LAKE SURVEY NAUTICAL CHARTS: THE INFLUENCE OF TRADITION presented by Deborah Ann Johnson has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for M.A. degree injengnanhL WW Major professor DateMl’flg 07639 ‘bv1531—J RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to ”saunas remove this Checkout from “ your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. U. S. LAKE SURVEY NAUTICAL CHARTS: THE INFLUENCE OF TRADITION By Deborah Ann Johnson A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Geography 1982 ABSTRACT U. S. LAKE SURVEY NAUTICAL CHARTS: THE INFLUENCE OF TRADITION 133’ Deborah Ann Johnson Tradition has had a great influence on cartography. Conventional map symbols have developed over many centuries to improve the uniformity and utility of cartographic communication, especially for reference maps. This study examines the influence of tradition on the cartographic deveIOpment of the nautical charts of the Great Lakes produced by the U. S. Lake Survey from 18M to 1970. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I thoroughly enjoyed my graduate studies in cartography at Michigan State University, thanks to many people. Dr. Richard Groop provided valuable assistance on my thesis and cartographic studies, and managed to make cartography not only interesting but entertaining, due in part to his somewhat peculiar and jaded sense of humor. Mike Lipsey made production cartography very enjoyable and worthwhile, and working at the Cartography Center with Mike and other assorted cartographers was one of the best experiences I've had at M. S. U. Also deserving a note of appreciation are Dr. "Chip" Dipp and Professor G. Hbssifats ("Jump on In"), probably the most respected and reknowned scholars in the Geography Department at M. S. U., and the many great friends who made student life most entertaining. Now that I've left the five-foot raccoons of East Lansing behind for farm life on the Great Plains in Loomis, Nebraska, I'm proud to say that I graduated from M. S. U. with an M. A. degree, an M. R. S. degree, and an M. 0. M. degree. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES iv LIST OF FIGURES CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Nautical Chart Symbolization Development of the U. S. Lake Survey 15 Background and the Development of the Research Problem 19 Methodology 20 Footnotes Chapter One 23 CHAPTER TWO HISTORY OF THE U. S. LAKE SURVEY MAPPING ACTIVITIES 1841-1970 Introduction 18A1—1882 The Initial Survey Field Work Office Work 1889-1911 Resumption of the Lake Survey Formulation of the General Project of 1907 Chart Project of 1909 1911-19A8 Expansion of Operations Reformulation of the Chart Project 1948-1970 The Modern Period Footnotes Chapter Two CHAPTER THREE CARTOGRARHIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE LAKE SURVEY CHARTS Introduction 18h1-1882 The Initial Survey 1889-1911 Resumption of the Lake Survey 1911-19A8 Expansion of Operations 1948—1970 The Modern Period The Influence of Tradition on the Lake Survey Charts APPENDIX A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF U. S. LAKE SURVEY CHARTS 18‘51-1970 LIST OF REFERENCES 135 iii LIST OF TABLES 1. Sample Lake Survey Charts 50 2. Cartographic Development of the Lake Survey Charts 74 iv LIST OF FIGURES 1. U. S. Lake Survey chart of Ontonagon Harbor, 1859. 2. U. S. Lake Survey chart No. #3 of St. Clair River, 1966. 3. Lead-line soundings on part of a nautical chart. u. Depth profiles by echo sounder on a nautical chart. s. Multiple depth profiles represented on a nautical chart. 6. Soundings from a full hydrographic survey. \l\10\O\-¥=’\fl 7. Standard symbols for buoys and beacons from Chart No. 1 Nautical Chart Symbolg and Abbreviations, 8. Standard chart symbols for dangers to navigation. 1o 9. Standard coastline symbols. 12 1o. Standard symbols for coast features and natural features. 13 11. Standard abbreviations for bottom characteristics. 1h 12. U. S. Coast Survey chart of Anacapa Island, 1854. 16 13. Chart of Toronto Harbor, 1816, by H. W. Bayfield 28 14. Chart of Lake Huron, 1:400,000, 1860. 52 15. Chart of Saginaw Bay, 1:120,000, 1860. 53 16. Chart of St. Clair River, 1:40,000, 1872. 5h 17. Chart of Ontonagon Harbor, 1:16.000, 1859. 55 18. Portion of chart of Ontonagon Harbor, 1:16,000, 1859. 57 19. Pertion of chart of St. Clair River, 1:h0,000, 1872. 58 20. Insets on charts of Ontonagon Harbor and Eagle Harbor. 59 21. Chart No. 765 of Holland Harbor, 1:15,000, 1912. 61 Chart No. 52 of Lake Huron, 1:120,000, 1936. 6h V 23. Chart No. #3 of St. Clair River, 1:40,000, 1934. 65 29. Chart No. 711 of Manistique Harbor, 1:10,000, 1925. 66 25. Chart No. 5 of Lake Huron, 1:500,000, 1967. 68 26. Chart No. 52 of Lake Huron, 1:120,000, 1967. 69 27. Chart No. #3 of St. Clair River, 1:#0,000, 1966. 70 28. Chart No. 763 of Holland Harbor, 1:15,000, 1966. 71 29a. Index map of general charts of the Great Lakes. 127 29b. Index map of charts of St. Lawrence River, Lake Champlain, and New York State Barge Canal System. 128 29c. Index map of charts of Lake Ontario and lower Niagara River.129 29d. Index map of charts of Lake Erie, Niagara River, Detroit River, Lake St. Clair, and St. Clair River. 130 29e. Index map of charts of Lake Huron, Straits of Mackinac, and St. Marys River. 131 29f. Index map of charts of Lake Michigan. 132 29g. Index map of charts of Lake Superior. 13} 29h. Index map of charts of Minnesota-Ontario Border Lakes. '13A vi CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Tradition has played an important role in cartography, and conventional map symbols have developed over many centuries to provide uniformity, continuity. and simplified cartographic communi- cation. Traditional symbols have been especially useful on general or reference maps such as topographic maps and nautical charts which provide detailed, highly accurate locational information, and many of the symbols used on these maps have become standardized. Traditional symbols have also been developed for thematic maps such as population maps which portray spatial distributions and relationships; but convention has been less important, and inno- vative and imaginative symbolism has often been used to create unusual thematic maps. The role of tradition in cartography is particularly evident in the development of nautical charts. Nautical charts have been used for centuries to aid mariners in determining courses and positions at sea. As early as the sixteenth century EurOpean chartmakers introduced standard symbols to represent safe anchorage, buoys, and submerged rocks. Nautical charts kept pace with advances in navigation and cartography, but conventional symbols were preferred and the only major changes in their development were greater accuracy and improved map legibility. This study examines the influence of tradition on the 1 2 cartographic development of the nautical charts of the Great Lakes published by the U. S. Lake Survey over a span of more than 125 years. The earliest Lake Survey charts were black and white litho- graphic prints produced in the mid-nineteenth century with cumbersome printing methods and unsophisticated surveying equipment (Figure 1), while most recent charts are'color prints produced on modern offset presses and compiled from data obtained with echo sounding, electronic positioning, and aerial photography (Figure 2).