RADICALS AND REACTIONARIES: THE POLARISATION OF COMMUNITY AND GOVERNMENT IN THE NAME OF PUBLIC SAFETY AND SECURITY Douglas M. Weeks A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of St Andrews 2013 Full metadata for this item is available in Research@StAndrews:FullText at: http://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/ Please use this identifier to cite or link to this item: http://hdl.handle.net/10023/3416 This item is protected by original copyright This item is licensed under a Creative Commons License Radicals and Reactionaries: The Polarisation of Community and Government in the Name of Public Safety and Security Douglas M. Weeks This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment for the degree of PhD at the University of St Andrews 15 November 2012 Abstract The contemporary threat of terrorism has changed the ways in which government and the public view the world. Unlike the existential threat from nation states in previous centuries, today, government and the public spend much of their effort looking for the inward threat. Brought about by high profile events such as 9/11, 7/7, and 3/11, and exacerbated by globalisation, hyper-connected social spheres, and the media, the threats from within are reinforced daily. In the UK, government has taken bold steps to foment public safety and public security but has also been criticised by some who argue that government actions have labelled Muslims as the ‘suspect other’. This thesis explores the counterterrorism environment in London at the community/government interface, how the Metropolitan Police Service and London Fire Brigade deliver counter-terrorism policy, and how individuals and groups are reacting. It specifically explores the realities of the lived experience of those who make up London’s ‘suspect community’ and whether or not counterterrorism policy can be linked to further marginalisation, radicalism, and extremism. By engaging with those that range from London’s Metropolitan Police Service’s Counterterrorism Command (SO15) to those that make up the radical fringe, an ethnographic portrait is developed. Through that ethnographic portrait the ‘ground truth’ and complexities of the lived experience are made clear and add significant contrast to the aseptic policy environment. iii Acknowledgements There are numerous people who made this thesis possible and without their help, support, and guidance, none of this would have been possible. I would first like to thank my supervisors Roger Mac Ginty and Robert Lambert who provided uncompromising guidance and support throughout the entire process. Your patience and unremitting commitment made this project a reality. I would also like to expend my thanks to the men and women of the Metropolitan Police Service, London Fire Brigade, ACPO, and Home Office who set aside their busy schedules and took the time to speak with me. Your perspective and insight was a critical asset to my understanding and appreciation of the public safety environment in London. Finally, I want to thank all of the men and women from the community who I interviewed and spoke with. Your willingness to engage and share your views provided a personalised and critical understanding of the lived experience you face each day. I hope I have told your story accurately and that future opportunities will present themselves to continue our engagement. Last, for those that eyed me with suspicion, for the record, I’m not associated with the CIA, FBI, or any other intelligence or law enforcement agency in any country, really! iv Table of Contents Abstract..........................................................................................................................................iii Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................ iv List of Tables, Maps, and Figures.................................................................................................. ix List of Abbreviations ...................................................................................................................... x Glossary of Islamic/Arabic Terms................................................................................................xii Chapter I: Introduction.................................................................................................................... 1 A. Problem Statement.............................................................................................................. 4 B. Research Question .............................................................................................................. 6 C. Thesis Structure .................................................................................................................. 8 Chapter II: Literature Review of Key Concepts- Public; Community; Public Security; Public Safety; Process, Power, and Exclusion............................................................................. 15 A. Public ................................................................................................................................ 16 B. Community .......................................................................................................................21 C. Public Security.................................................................................................................. 31 D. Public Safety ..................................................................................................................... 38 E. Process, Power, and Exclusion ......................................................................................... 41 Chapter III: Literature Review of Key Terms- Radicalisation and Marginalisation .................... 51 A. Historical Radicalism in Britain........................................................................................ 53 B. Concepts of Radicalism .................................................................................................... 57 C. Concepts of Marginalisation............................................................................................. 71 Integration................................................................................................................... 78 D. Psychosocial Relevancies ................................................................................................. 80 Social Identity Theory................................................................................................. 81 Social Network (Group) Theory.................................................................................. 82 Relative Deprivation ................................................................................................... 84 Chapter IV: Generalising the Current Threat- Radicalised Islam................................................. 89 A. Salafism............................................................................................................................. 92 Reformers.................................................................................................................... 96 B. The UK............................................................................................................................ 101 Chapter V: CONTEST- Post 9/11 Counter-Terrorism Strategy in the UK ................................ 105 A. CONTEST....................................................................................................................... 106 v Pursue ....................................................................................................................... 113 Prevent ...................................................................................................................... 116 Protect....................................................................................................................... 119 Prepare ..................................................................................................................... 121 Official Assessment ................................................................................................... 122 B. Legislative Actions ......................................................................................................... 122 Terrorism Act 2000................................................................................................... 123 Anti-Terrorism, Crime, and Security Act 2001......................................................... 124 Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005 ............................................................................ 125 Terrorism Act 2006................................................................................................... 126 Counter-Terrorism Act 2008..................................................................................... 127 Links to Northern Ireland ......................................................................................... 128 C. Risk, Society, and New Labour ...................................................................................... 131 Chapter VI: Methodology........................................................................................................... 147 A. Research Importance....................................................................................................... 148 B. Research Question and Related Subsets ......................................................................... 152 C. Assumptions and Hypotheses ........................................................................................