AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE INTER-RELATEDNESS OF ILA, KAONDE, LENJE, NYANJA, SALA, SOLI AND TONGA By Avinat Mbwela Chitebeta A Thesis Submitted to the University of Zambia in Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistic Science THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA LUSAKA 2019 COPYRIGHT © 2019 by Avinat Mbwela Chitebeta. All rights reserved. No part of this thesis may be reproduced or stored in any form or by any means without prior permission in writing from the author or the University of Zambia. i DECLARATION I, AVINAT MBWELA CHITEBETA, do hereby declare that this thesis: (a) Represents my own work; (b) Has not previously been submitted for a degree at this or any other University; and (c) Does not incorporate any published work or material from another thesis. Signed:………………………………………………………… Date:…………………………………………………………… ii APPROVAL This thesis of AVINAT MBWELA CHITEBETA is approved as fulfilling the requirements for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistics by the University of Zambia. Examiner 1 Name: ____________________ Signature_____________ Date______________ Examiner 2 Name: ____________________ Signature_____________ Date______________ External Examiner Name: ____________________ Signature_____________ Date______________ Chairperson - Board of Examiners Name: ____________________ Signature_____________ Date______________ Supervisor Name: ____________________ Signature_____________ Date______________ iii DEDICATION To my husband, Jonas and children; Precious, Mutinta and Ethel. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Sincere gratitude to Dr. Nkolola Wakumelo (deceased), my proficient academic supervisor for her consistency in guiding the study to ensure that this work met the required standard of scholarship, ‘may her soul rest in peace.’ Further, appreciation goes to Dr. John Lubinda for his willingness to supervise the final stage of this study. His contribution will ever be remembered and Dr. D. Tadepalli for his technical support. I wish to thank Dr. John Simwinga for his encouragement and availability to give advice on academic programs. I also appreciate the moral support from the lecturers in the Department of Literature and Languages, University of Zambia and my colleagues from the Department of Literature and Languages, Rusangu University, Monze. I also wish to express my appreciation to Rusangu University Administrative Board, for approving my study program. Thanks to Professor Denford Musvosvi, Dr. Munyengwe, for their constructive comments on the work especially in the preliminaries and Professor Mutuku Mutinga for his moral support. I am grateful to Dr. Harrington Akombwa, Dr Alvert Ngandu and Mr. Life Mutaka for editorial support; Lina Banda for her support in printing draft copies of the document; Pastor and Mrs Ndatoya for their hospitality during my studies. I am indebted to all those who participated in providing information and translation of the Swadesh List into the seven languages under study: Sala- The Royal Highness Chikumbe Chibamba, Pastor Teddy Shibeleki, and Ms. Judy Mwinga; Ila- Mr. Edwin Shimuzhila and Mr. Barrister Haangandu and Ms. Rodah Kakoma and group; Kaonde-Mr. Emmanuel Mubanga and Mr. Collins Mingochi (late); Lenje: Mr. P. C. Kachenga, Mr. Audry Chaaba, Mrs. Finess Chaaba, Mrs. Lillian Mwesa; Nyanja: Mr. Chinsinga; Mrs. Ellen Mbuzi Kashweka, Mr. Charles Shezongo; Soli: Mr. Phinias Mukuwa, Mr. Silas Njoomwa, and Mr. Mumba Lupekesa; and Tonga: Mr. Hangoma Patron, Mr. Donald Mwanvwa, Mrs. Pimpa Naini and Mr. Robson Siazyondo. May God bless you all. v To God be the glory for giving me an understanding and supportive husband, Jonas Chitebeta and daughters, Precious, Mutinta and Ethel, for their patience and endurance during my absence from home. I also appreciate my sister Ellen Mbuzi and Pastor Shibeleki for their commitment to accompany me during the preliminary investigations especially in rural areas. I appreciate the encouragements from all my children with their spouses and children. May God richly bless them. I thank God for the two prayer partners (Mrs. Kaputo and Shepherdess Linda Sibanda) who specifically prayed for the success of this academic venture. I am indebted to my mother, Ms. Jane Sulwe, Chalwa, Chuuka for introducing me to the word of God, which has a lot of promises that I have claimed throughout my study. Indeed in God all things are possible. He granted me good health, provided wisdom and protected me from harm and danger. By His grace, this work has come to reality. God is worthy to be praised. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS COPYRIGHT ............................................................................................................... i DECLARATION ......................................................................................................... ii APPROVAL ............................................................................................................... iii DEDICATION ........................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................... v LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................... xi LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................................xii LIST OF APPENDICES ........................................................................................... xiii ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS ....................................................................... xiv DEFINITIONS OF TERMS ....................................................................................... xv ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................. xvi CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background...................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Brief Discussion of the Languages Investigated ............................................................. 2 1.2.1 Ila ......................................................................................................................... 5 1.2.2 Kaonde ................................................................................................................ 5 1.2.3 Lenje .................................................................................................................... 7 1.2.4 Nyanja ................................................................................................................. 8 1.2.5 Sala .................................................................................................................... 10 1.2.6 Soli .................................................................................................................... 11 1.2.7 Tonga ................................................................................................................. 15 vii 1.3 Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................. 18 1.4 Purpose of the Study ...................................................................................................... 20 1.5 Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 20 1.6 Significance of the Study............................................................................................... 20 1.7 Analytical Framework ................................................................................................... 21 1.7.1 Lexicostatistics .................................................................................................. 24 1.7.2. Determining cognates ..................................................................................... 28 1.7.3. Language Family Tree ..................................................................................... 28 1.7.4. Criticism aganist Lexicostatisdtical method .................................................... 29 1.8 Limitations of the Study ................................................................................................ 29 1.9 Scope and Delimitations of the Study ........................................................................... 29 1.10 The Structure of the Thesis.......................................................................................... 31 1.11 Summary...................................................................................................................... 31 CHAPTER TWO ...................................................................................................... 32 LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................... 32 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 32 2.2 Previous work on Kaonde, Lenje, Nyanja, Soli and Tonga. ......................................... 32 2.3 Proto-Bantu (PB) ........................................................................................................... 38 2.4 Classification of Bantu Languages. ..............................................................................