An Investigation of the National Self through the Concepts of Subjectivity and Discourse A study of Welsh-Language Learners in Wales Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. September 2018 Nicholas Morgan Supervisors: Dr. Anwen Elias and Dr. Brieg Powel Department of International Politics, Aberystwyth University Abstract This thesis argues that "national subjectivity" is a valuable concept which can provide a more nuanced and comprehensive conceptual understanding of national identity than is currently available. Using notions of discourse and subjectivity developed by Michel Foucault and the Essex School of Discourse Theory, and taking Wales as a case- study, it advances a theoretical framework for exploring and bringing new insights to the national self and the role of the nation in people’s daily lives. The theoretical framework puts forth an understanding of the national self that investigates the discursive production of the individual as a national subject, the nature of national subjectivity, and the ethical implications of national subjectivities, such that a national subjectivity confers ethical schemata which shape the conduct, values, choices and other aspects of the individual’s day-to-day life. Using interview data collected through field work carried out with Welsh language learners in three regions within Wales, this thesis empirically examines the insights that this theoretical framework can contribute to the understanding of the national self, and its complex, fluid, self- constructed, creatively negotiated, and impactful nature. Acknowledgements I would like to thank first and foremost my supervisors, Anwen Elias and Brieg Powel, for their invaluable support and guidance over the past four years. Their superb advice, guidance and feedback throughout the researching and writing of the thesis were instrumental to its development, and their patience and enthusiasm made for an enjoyable process. I am grateful also to Elin Royles for her supervision during my third year, and for such valuable feedback at a crucial stage. I am very grateful to the Pantyfedwen Foundation for their extraordinary generosity in funding the entire course of the PhD programme. Without their financial assistance, the last four years of study would not have been possible. Repaying their faith in me and the thesis has been a driving motivator in its completion. Thank you also to all of the research participants – all Welsh language learners – who generously gave their time, and for sharing such illuminating and fascinating experiences and reflections. It was a privilege to have worked with such wonderful people from all walks of life. Thanks also to those language teachers and course coordinators who so enthusiastically aided the field work. Thanks, then, to Zoe Pettinger, Gareth Thomas, Alan Nason, Suzanne Condon, Bethan Glyn, and Helen Roberts for their welcome support in accessing participants. My sincerest thank you is due to Desiree Poets whose assistance in the process of applying for the programme made all the difference. While her continued support, advice, and willingness to cast an eye over work has helped to no end, her friendship has meant a great deal more. I am also enormously grateful to all those friends and colleagues whose willingness to talk through and exchange ideas have shaped the development of the thesis. Thus Mary, James, Jim, Boomer, Trystan, Karijn, Katarina, Charlotte, John, Richard, and many others have, through their friendship, had a greater influence than they probably realise. I am grateful to the PhD community of the International Politics department, who have made the basement a supportive and enriching place to have spent the last four years. My officemates Charlotte, Tom and Danielle have made for a wonderful and laughter-filled working environment. A special thank you is also owed to Karijn, Paul, Katarina and Emily for housing me during the last and most intensive stages of writing the thesis. Last, but certainly not least, I am eternally grateful to my family. My mamgu and dadcu Morgan, my mamgu Jones, my sister Ellie, and my parents have done more than can be put into such a short space. To them I owe everything. Contents Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 1 Outlining the Project ........................................................................................................................... 3 Empirical Investigation ........................................................................................................................ 8 Thesis Structure and Arguments ....................................................................................................... 20 Chapter One – Literature Review.......................................................................................................... 25 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 25 Literature on Nations and Nationalism ............................................................................................. 25 Literature on National Identity ......................................................................................................... 32 Challenging “National Identity?” ...................................................................................................... 43 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 46 Chapter Two – Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................ 48 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 48 National Subjectivity ......................................................................................................................... 49 The Formation and Nature of the National Subject: Discourse, Subjectivity and Agency ........... 52 Ethics and Subjectivity .................................................................................................................. 66 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 71 Chapter Three – The Context of Wales ................................................................................................. 74 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 74 Discourses of Contemporary Wales .................................................................................................. 75 The Birth of the Modern Welsh Nation ............................................................................................ 81 Liberal and Nonconformist Wales .................................................................................................... 87 Liberal Nationalism and the Collapse of the Liberal Hegemonic Bloc .............................................. 95 Industrial and Twentieth Century Wales ........................................................................................ 100 Post-Devolution Wales: The National Assembly for Wales ............................................................ 105 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................... 113 Chapter Four – The Discursive Construction of the Nation ................................................................ 114 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 114 Discourses of the Nation ................................................................................................................. 116 The Discursive Construction of Wales ............................................................................................ 120 “Othering” and the Invocation of National Frames ........................................................................ 130 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................... 137 Chapter Five - The Discursive Norms and Rules of Nationality........................................................... 139 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 139 Nationality and Normativity ........................................................................................................... 140 The Norms and Rules of Nationality ............................................................................................... 143 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................... 152 Chapter Six – Subjectivity and the Welsh Language in Welshness ..................................................... 154 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 154 The Welsh Language in Conceptions