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Photographs included in the original manuscript have twen reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6" x 9* black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. Bell & Howell Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0600 UMT YOUTH-IN-THE-STATES: THE MVSKOKE INDIAN NATION’S NINETEENTH CENTURY HIGHER EDUCATION PROGRAM DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Myra Alexander-Starr, B. S., M. S ***** The Ohio State University 2000 Dissertation Committee Approved by Dr. Mary Ann D. Sagaria, Adviser Dr. Robert Lawson Dr. Amy Zahartick Adviser Education UMI Number 9982515 Copyright 2000 by Alexander-Starr, Myra Lois All rights reserved. UMI' UMI Microform9982S15 Copyright 2000 by Bell & Howell Information and Leaming Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. Bell & Howell Information and Leaming Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Copyright by Myra Alexander-Starr 2000 ABSTRACT In 1876, the Mvskoke, or Creek, Indians began sending their young people to various colleges and universities in the United States. A Mvskoke practice through the 1890s, the program was called "Youth-in-the-States. " Its inception corresponded to the Mvskoke’s new constitutional government, the rising federal threat to open Mvskoke lands for general settlement, and the influence of non-citizen interpreters on Mvskoke internal affairs. This study focused on the success of the Youth-in-the States effort. It used James Axtell’s paradigm for finding historical significance in higher education, determine what society wanted of its young, and examine what they actually became. Using ethno-history. the use of ethnological and historical material, it followed four Mvskoke students, who entered a small Presbyterian college, the University of Wooster (now called the College of Wooster), Ohio, in 1879. In particular, it traces the life of Mvskoke student, William A. Sapulpa, from childhood through early adulthood. Over all, students had a positive experience at Wooster. Academically, they pursued a rigorous classical curriculum and participated in school activities such as debating and literary societies. Upon their return home, they were immediately placed in clerical and secretarial positions within the Mvskoke government The Mvskokes benefitted from their returning students who returned to fill necessary positions ii requiring sophisticated bi lingual skills. As the returnees grew in maturity, their experience took them to tribal administration, education, law, and politics. This study suggests that students may have been able to overcome the difficulties in attending an institution of another society because the Mvskokes-not the university-had made such schooling one of the rites of passage into their new governmental society. Other influential factors included peer presence, sound academic preparation, and interaction with authentic mentorship. Ill Cvthke, cvtchke ofvtcv, nokis. Mvto. This is for you. Dad and Mom. I say this and I thank you. IV ACKNOWLEDGMENT There are so many people . I wish to thank fîrst, my adviser, Mary Anne Sagaria, for her tremendous patience and absolute encouragement and support. You were always in my comer. To members of my committee. Dr. Robert Lawson who challenged my thinking; and to Dr. Amy Zaharlick who listened to me as if I were the only person in the world. I would like to thank the various archivists who patiently guided me through a morass of documents, Joyce Bear, cultural specialist for the Mvskoke (Creek) Nation and Denise Montbarren of the College of Wooster (Ohio) Library. Also to Chester Cowan at the Oklahoma Historical Society; Doris Yocham and Jim Hubbard of the Sapulpa, Oklahoma Historical Society; and Heather M. Lloyd, Edmon Low Library Special Collections, Oklahoma State University. Kindest thanks also goes to the Bacone College library and Frances Donelson. Other staffs diligently served me at the Wooster, Ohio public library; the Ohio Historical Society; the University of Oklahoma Western History Collection; the Muskogee, Oklahoma Regional Public Library’s Grant Foreman Collection; the University of Tulsa Library’s Alice Robertson collection; and the National Archives American Indian collections in Washington D C. 1 would like to thank the agencies who provided funding at different points of my research, the Muscogee (Creek) Nation of Oklahoma; the College of Education and University College at The Ohio State University; the State Regents of Oklahoma, and the Southern Regional Education Board, Atlanta, Georgia, especially Dr. Ansley Abraham. 1 would also express my appreciation to those who became my "reflecting wall" as 1 struggled with my ideas: Dr. Michael Green, University of Kentucky; Drs. L. G. Moses, Russell Dobson, and Kenneth St. Clair, Oklahoma State University; Dr. Grayson Noley, University of Oklahoma, and my friend and chief sounding board. Dr. Mary Jane Warde, the Oklahoma Historical Society. There were the little serendipities when it was least expected, but badly needed. Richard and Dagmar Celeste, Leslie Taylor-AUen, and Dr. James Ronda all spoke words of encouragement at critical points in my attitude. The American Indian Leadership Program at Penn State University, where the Indian students-so far from home-attended to business with such duty in order to get back to their people. Every day their lives were like words of inspiration. To the people who sustained me at The Ohio State University, so far away from home. My cohorts Drs. Ken Hale and Barbara Hanniford, who made my student life so sweet so far from home. My dear next door neighbor at Jones Tower, that "real" Indian, Camille Miranda from Madras, India. To University College and my advising unit, especially Virginia Gordon who kept my head on straight. To the first person I ever knew to finish a Ph. D. right before my ^ e s, Jerry Kiel. VI To Dr. Robert Barger and James Westwater. To the Columbus, Cleveland, and Dayton Indian Centers, who reminded me that I could be who I was every day, even in Ohio. To Marti Chaatsmith, and her parents Pauline and Dr. Clodus Smith who hosted me on my visits to Columbus. To Ohio State pals, Dan Cook; Linda Chamberlin Jones; and also far from home, Raymond Sells of the great Diné people. How firm thy friendship! To FMs KFGY ("Froggy Radio"), KCBE, WOSU, and KOSU whose music was the support 1 needed to work through the night. To eighteen-wheeler radio stations between Oklahoma and Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Washington, D. C., who gave me the energy I needed to keep driving. To my family, my beautiful Momma, and Hocv, George, Sam, and ail my dear wonderful, wacky nieces and nephews. To Daddy, Aunt Christie, Aunt Sista, and Grandma, now gone beyond, but all sowers to my destiny; Aunt Myrtle who sewed for me, and told me long time ago, "Others want to do what you do, but life won’t let them; you were allowed, so you better do it." To the glorious Mvskokulge of whom 1 have been a proud child every day of my life. To my sunshine, my daughter Leslie, and my precious grandson, Aaron. Finally to my beloved husband Moe, who has never known me without my face in a book. Love and patience are something 1 never thought 1 would have in this life, and you have given me both. vu VITA July 30, 1939 .............................. Born in Flandreau, South Dakota 1962 ............................................ B. S., University of Tulsa 1987 ............................................ M. S., Oklahoma State University 1988 ........................................... Graduate Administrative Associate Academic Adviser The Ohio State University 1991 ............................................ Project Assistant American Indian Leadership Program, Pennsylvania State University 1992 ............................................ Manager, Counseling and Outreach Native Americans in Biological Science Dept. Microbiology/Molecular Genetics Oklahoma State University FIELD OF STUDY Major Field; Education Policy and Leadership Specialty: Higher Education and Student Affairs vui TABLE OF CONTENTS Dedication ..................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgements ..........................................................................................................v