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When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", University of Southampton, name of the University School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination http://eprints.soton.ac.uk UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON FACULTY OF HUMANITIES Archaeology Looting deconstructed: a study of non-professional engagements with the material past in Kozani, Greece. by Ioanna Antoniadou Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy February 2014 Στους γονείς μου για τη δυνατότητα Στον Νικόλα για την καρτερική αναμονή Στον Γιάννη για την αδιάκοπη στήριξη του UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON ABSTRACT FACULTY OF HUMANITIES Archaeology LOOTING DECONSTRUCTED: A STUDY OF NON- PROFESSIONAL ENGAGEMENTS WITH THE MATERIAL PAST IN KOZANI, GREECE by Ioanna Antoniadou In dominant archaeological discourse, looting has been primarily discussed in connection with its assumed profit-related motives and the destruction it causes to the archaeological context of antiquities. Such ways of thinking, however valid they may be in some instances, result in an inadequate representation and understanding of looting, which conflates diverse forms of non-professional digging and search for antiquities, ignores the socio-cultural contexts they are embedded within, and undermines or disregards the objectives or perspectives of those perceived as ‘looters’. This thesis addresses these problems and attempts to deconstruct the blanket conceptualisation of looting that assimilates and denounces a range of acts, from a failure to register an antiquity, the unauthorised possession of an artefact, to an object’s sale for subsistence purposes. In light of this, I present and interpret cases of non-professional digging and collection (but not sale) of relics gathered from ethnographic research amongst local communities in Kozani in north-western Greece. The results of the ethnographic research, interwoven with the critically analysed impact of official archaeology’s epistemology and practice (applied in Greece and elsewhere), offers a multi-layered understanding of looting, which goes beyond professionalised notions and ethics. I contend that rather than being inspired by economic objectives, looting phenomena often involve an array of diverse, complex and ambiguous social activities, embedded in daily practices. This study of looting is essentially a study of non- professionals, who physically engage with the material past, in order to control the past’s materiality and symbolic meaning and eventually construct social power for themselves. On one level, it attempts to scrutinize the complex forms of reaction and resistance of ordinary people towards official archaeology. On a deeper level, it hopes to reveal the hybrid character of seemingly opposing practices. The control over antiquities and the desire for the symbolic and social power it generates, transcend professional and non- professional behaviours towards the material past. i ii CONTENTS ABSTRACT i CONTENTS iii LIST OF FIGURES vii LIST OF APPENDICES ix DECLARATION OF AUTHORSHIP xi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xiii ABBREVIATIONS xv NOTE ON TRANSLITERATION xvii NOTE ON TRANSLATION AND CITATION xix 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Two kinds of approaches to looting 1 1.3 Dominant approaches to looting 3 1.4 ‘On the ground’ approaches to looting 5 1.5 An ethnography of looting in Greece 9 1.6 Looting: a mirror facing archaeology? 11 1.7 The flow of thesis 13 2. DISCOURSE ON LOOTING: A CRITICAL VIEW 15 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Dominant representations of looting and looters in archaeological texts 15 2.3 ‘Protection’ vs. ‘destruction’: A discursive opposition 26 2.4 Alternative accounts on looting 32 2.5 Synopsis 46 iii 3. A ‘PERSON-CENTRED’ ETHNOGRAPHY: THEORY AND METHOD 49 3.1 Introduction 49 3.2 Fieldwork 49 3.3 Ethnographic material 55 3.4 Theoretical analysis 57 3.5 On ethics and archaeological ethnography 58 3.6 Conclusion 60 4. DIMENSIONS OF OFFICIAL ARCHAEOLOGY IN GREECE 63 4.1 Introduction 63 4.2 Assuming a particular value for antiquities 64 4.3 Antiquities before they were assumed as sacred 68 4.4 Consolidating the value of antiquities through physical interventions and laws 69 4.5 The archaeological self 78 4.6 Conclusion 79 5. OFFICIAL ARCHAEOLOGY IN KOZANI 83 5.1 Introduction 83 5.2 Regional and historical background of Kozani 83 5.3 Archaeology in Kozani before 1983 91 5.4 Archaeology in Kozani after 1983 96 5.5 Conclusion 113 6. AN ANTAGONISTIC SYMBOLIC CAPITAL 115 6.1 Introduction 115 6.2 The ‘looter’, the archaeologists, and I 115 6.3 George taking archaeology into his hands 123 6.4 George on official state archaeology 127 iv 6.5 George on his perception of archaeology and treatment of archaeological finds 129 6.6 George’s interpretations on Ano Macedonia and Elimeia 132 6.7 George on his contribution to the community 136 6.8 Conclusion 137 7. WHEN INTIMATE HISTORIES ARE THREATENED 141 7.1 Introduction 141 7.2 About Nikos 141 7.3 Nikos and his association with official archaeology 143 7.4 Perspectives towards official discourse 151 7.5 The appeal of ‘unfamiliar’ artefacts 152 7.6 The appeal of ‘familiar’ artefacts 155 7.7 Why keep the objects? 163 7.8 Why give the objects away? 167 7.9 Conclusion 168 8. TREASURE-HUNTING IN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS 171 8.1 Introduction 171 8.2 Meeting Ilias 171 8.3 The internalisation of official discourse by local experience 174 8.4 Before archaeology 178 8.5 Knowledge as property 181 8.6 Implications of a vertical and visual representation 183 8.7 The past as seen 187 8.8 The past as felt 190 8.9 Conclusion 193 v 9. CONCLUSION 195 9.1 Reflection 195 9.2 Looking for the ‘looting’ to deconstruct 195 9.3 Official archaeology: assumptions and material implications 198 9.4 Non-professional actors and their response to official discourse 202 9.5 Identifying ‘culture’ in looting phenomena 205 APPENDICES 209 Appendix 1 209 Appendix 2 213 Appendix 3 215 Appendix 4 217 REFERENCES 223 vi LIST OF FIGURES 3.1 Kozani and Thessaloniki (Google Maps Engine 2014a). 5.1 Periphery of western Macedonia and the prefecture of Kozani (Wikipedia 2012). 5.2 The rugged terrain of Kozani (Google Maps 2014). 5.3 Locations of ethnography inside the prefecture of Kozani (Google Maps Engine 2014b). 5.4 Locations of ethnography outside the prefecture of Kozani (Google Maps Engine 2014c). 5.5 Locations of Mavropigi, Kleitos, Polymylos in Kozani (Google Maps Engine 2014d). 5.6 Rescue excavations at Kleitos, Kozani (Municipality of Kozani 2014). 5.7 Rescue excavations at Mavropigi, Kozani (Mimis 2011). 5.8 Rescue excavations at Polymylos, Kozani (Egnatia Odos 2014). 5.9 The marble lion of Aiani, 5th century BC (Karamitrou-Mentesidi 2008, p.64). 5.10 Terracotta female figure (Karamitrou-Mentesidi 2008, p.74). 6.1 George pointing and explaining (photo by author). 7.1 Nikos and his artworks in his house in the village (photo by author). 7.2 Neolithic pot from Nikos’ collection (photo by author). 7.3 Loom weights from Nikos’ collection (photo by author). 7.4 The storeroom (photo by author). 7.5 Antiquities, traditional objects and artworks interspersed (photo by author). vii 7.6 The life of peasants (Xirolimni 2009). 7.7 The life of peasants (Xirolimni 2009). 7.8 Old and young generations discussing (Xirolimni 2009). 7.9 Ottoman tombstones from Nikos’ collection (photo by author). 8.1 Ilias (photo by author). 8.2 The memoir (Bourniotis ca. 1991). 8.3 The “golden things” (Karamitrou-Mentesidi 2008). 8.4 Map (Bourniotis 1999). 8.5 Map (Bourniotis 1999). 8.6 Ilias at excavations in Aiani (Bourniotis ca.1991). 8.7 Ilias’ emotions and embodied encounters (Bourniotis ca.1991). viii LIST OF APPENDICES 1. Lists of dates and events mentioned in thesis. 2. Passages from I Aiani kai i symvoli tis sti diamorphosi tis neas istorikis physiognomias tis Ano Makedonias (Karamitrou-Mentesidi 2008). 3. Passages from A.M. (George 1995). 4. Passages from I Aiani kai pos tin anastisame (Bourniotis 1991). ix x DECLARATION OF AUTHORSHIP I, Ioanna Antoniadou, declare that the thesis entitled ‘Looting deconstructed: A study of non-professional engagements with the material past in Kozani, Greece’, and the work presented in the thesis are both my own, and have been generated by me as the result of my own original research. I confirm that: this work was done wholly or mainly while in candidature for a research degree at this University; where any part of this thesis has previously been submitted for a degree or any other qualification at this University or any other institution, this has been clearly stated; where I have consulted the published work of others, this is always clearly attributed; where I have quoted from the work of others, the source is always given. With the exception of such quotations, this thesis is entirely my own work; I have acknowledged all main sources of help; where the thesis is based on work done by myself jointly with others, I have made clear exactly what was done by others and what I have contributed myself; none of this work has been published before submission Signed: ………………………………………………………………………… Date:…………………………………………………………………………… xi xii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My deepest gratitude goes to Yannis Hamilakis, who agreed to be there for this long and fulfilling journey of mine, as a constant source of inspiration, moral and intellectual support and guidance.