BAPTISMS OF FIRE: HOW TRAINING, EQUIPMENT, AND IDEAS ABOUT THE NATION SHAPED THE BRITISH, FRENCH, AND GERMAN SOLDIERS' EXPERIENCES OF WAR IN 1914 Chad R. Gaudet A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY December 2009 Committee: Dr. Douglas J. Forsyth, Advisor Dr. Nathan Richardson Graduate Faculty Representative Dr. Stephen G. Fritz Dr. Beth A. Griech-Polelle ii ABSTRACT Dr. Douglas J. Forsyth, Advisor Training, equipment, and ideas about the nation shaped the British, French, and German soldiers’ experiences of war in 1914. Though current scholarship contained works that examined each of those topics separately or in combination, little research investigated the connection in a comparative model from the perspective of the soldiers. This work analyzed the British, French, and German soldiers of World War I during the initial phase (August--November 1914). This critical period of the war proved an excellent way to test these ideas. The project relied heavily on combatants’ personal accounts, which included archival sources. The troopers experience with initial combat served as a test. How those soldiers reacted suggested the connections with training, equipment, and ideas about the nation. The results supported the theory that the professionalism of the British soldier and the French soldier’s devotion to nation and comrade outweighed the German Army’s reliance on both equipment and the doctrine of winning at all costs. Nationalism, equipment, and training influenced soldiery. German equipment provided an edge, but it was not enough. Not only did nationalist sentiment among soldiers exist at the beginning of World War I, three different conceptions of nationalism were present. British and especially French nationalism proved stronger than the German variety, as demonstrated by the ordeal of combat. Professionalism in soldiery mattered; the British proved this point. A British nation existed, and it included soldiers of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Ideas about the nation as well as training led to success, but they also led to atrocities. Such was the case of the German Army. Camaraderie played no small role in the war-time experiences of all three combatants. iii Larger conclusions stemmed from this work. Dissimilar ideas about the nation influenced soldiers differently. Divergent types of training experiences yielded distinct results. Camaraderie proved to be the most important component of effective soldiery. Disadvantages in equipment had a negative impact on the psyche of soldiers. German barbarism demonstrated the dangers of nationalism as well as the mentality of winning at all costs. iv To those who shake off the albatross. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would sincerely like to thank my advisor and committee members for showing extreme patience with me and my work. Dr. Douglas J. Forsyth always pushed me to think bigger, and I cannot thank him enough for his insight and help. This attempted project serves as a testament to his inspiration. I also want to thank the rest of my committee members. Dr. Stephen G. Fritz, in many ways, influenced the area of my historical interest, and he always pushed me in my writing and research. Dr. Beth A. Griech-Polelle always proved helpful when I needed her advice, and her comments and suggestions bolstered my work. Dr. Nathan Richardson proved insightful as well, suggesting both revisions to consider as well as places to visit in Kansas. To all of you, I humbly offer my sincerest appreciation. Thank you. I would also like to offer gratitude to members of the faculty and staff at four institutions. I thank the people of Bowling Green State University who helped make this possible. In the Department of History, I want to express particular gratitude to DeeDee, Tina, and Dr. Ortiz, who all enabled me to keep the faith. I also thank Dorothy from the graduate college. To the history people at East Tennessee State University, you helped prepare me for this endeavor. To all the faculty and staff at Louisiana College, you helped make me the person I am today. And to the faculty and staff at Sterling College, I appreciate your support during my final stretch with this project. To librarians across the world, I am indebted. I thank the archivists at the Imperial War Museum for putting up with me on more than one occasion. For demonstrating patience with my limited French and German, I also want to thank the archivists at the Historial de la Grande Guerre in Péronne, the Bundesarchiv/Militarärchiv in Freiburg, and the Museum für Kommunikation in Berlin. I also offer gratitude to Valorie and the library staff at Sterling College, who kept my overdue library fines reasonable. vi To my family and friends, this work is an affirmation of your support. I thank my father and mother, who both encouraged my education. I thank my four siblings (Brenda, Beverly, Roger, and Jill) who helped make me the person I am today. I also give thanks to my Grandmother Jack and Aunt Evella, who I know are both smiling from above. For my friends, Riot, Doom, Joel, Ash, Scottie, Jonathon, Brian, and Russ, no words can describe how much your support has aided me over the years. Few people could be so lucky. I would also like to offer a special thanks to Jen. I do not know if I could have finished this project without her support. She helped bring out the best in me when I needed to be my best. Thanks to all the people who helped me during this quest. I may not have found the “holy grail,” but I did find myself. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION. THE DIFFERENCES IN CULTURE .................................................. 1 Methodology ........................................................................................................... 8 Historiography: A Study of Soldiers and War .......................................................... 11 CHAPTER ONE. THE CULTURE OF PREPARATION AND SOLDIERY ..................... 22 Math and Fire ............................................................................................................ 24 Though this was madness, was there method in it? ................................................... 36 To Fight or Not to Fight ............................................................................................. 43 Cohesion and Camaraderie ........................................................................................ 51 The Influence of Culture ............................................................................................ 61 CHAPTER TWO. NATIONALISM: TO BE OR NOT TO BE .......................................... 63 Definitions, Perceptions, and Modernity ................................................................... 63 A Product of Imagination? ............................................................................. 66 Connection with Modernity ........................................................................... 69 Not all Nations are Created Equally .......................................................................... 74 Importance of Culture .................................................................................... 76 Britain: Civil Engineering a Nation .............................................................. 80 France: From Divine Right to Frenchmen’s Rights ....................................... 86 Germany: Romancing the Volk .................................................................... 92 There was the rub! ..................................................................................................... 98 CHAPTER THREE. THE GERMAN SOLDIER: THE BRUTAL ROMANTIC .............. 101 Enthusiasm for German Romantic Nationalism ........................................................ 102 vi The Experience of Fire............................................................................................... 111 Reaction ............................................................................................................ 117 The Edge of Soldiery ................................................................................................. 135 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 159 CHAPTER FOUR. THE FRENCH SOLDIER: THE DEVOTED SCHIZOPHRENIC ..... 161 Enthusiasm ............................................................................................................ 161 The Romantic-Rational Soldier ................................................................................. 167 Conscription, Training, Discipline, and Camaraderie ............................................... 174 The Experience of Fire............................................................................................... 186 Reaction ............................................................................................................ 202 The Story of Marc Bloch ........................................................................................... 215 The Sympathy of Soldiery ......................................................................................... 220 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 225 CHAPTER FIVE. THE BRITISH ARMY: THE SENSE OF “BRITISHNESS” ............... 226 A Rose by any other Name ........................................................................................ 229 Varieties