ANCIENT INDIA In Historical Outline by D. H. MANOHAR This book is a substantially modified and enlarged version of the author's Ancient India: An Introductory Outline (Delhi, 1977) and surveys the major developments in India's social, economic and cultural history up to the end of the ancient period and the beginning of the early middle ages and explains the rise and growth of states with reference to their material basis. Special attention has been paid to the elements of change and continuity in society, economy and culture, and to the changing forms of exploitation and consequent social tensions as well as to the role of religion and superstition in society. The book demolishes the popular historiographical stereotypes created by the Hindu- chauvinist communal writings. It also gives the lie to the view that the Indian society has been stagnant and changeless—a view which was propagated by Western scholars in the heyday of British imperialism and continues to be peddled ingeniously in our own times. The assassination of Mahatma Gandhi. and the demolition of the Baburi Masjid are two... unforgettable milestones in the unfolding of the backward- looking Hindu revivalist and fascist politics of contemporary India. Since both Harappa and Mohenjodaro are situated now in Pakistan, the Hindu revivalists are busy locating the epicentre of the Harappan culture in the elusive Saraswati valley. Dwijendra Narayah Jha graduated from Presidency College, Calcutta, in 1957 and obtained M..A. and Ph.D. degrees in 1959 and 1964 respectively from Patna University where he taught history up to 1975. He is currently professor of history at the University of Delhi. Professor Jha has lectured at universities and other centres of education in India and abroad and was National Lecturer in History, University Grants Commission, during 1984-5. His works include Revenue System in Post- Maurya and Gupta Times (Calcutta, 1967), Ancient India: An Introductory Outline (Delhi, 1977), Studies in Early Indian Economic History (Delhi, 1980), Economy and Society in Early India: Issues and Paradigms (Delhi, 1993) and a number of articles published in Indian and foreign journals. He has to his credit several edited works including Feudal Social Formation in Early India (Delhi, 1987) and Society and Ideology in India: Essays in Honour of Professor R.S. Sharma (Delhi, 1996). Professor D.N. Jha was president of the ancient Indian history section of the Indian History Congress in 1979 and its General Secretary from 1985 to 1988. ANCIENT INDIA In Historical Outline Revised and Enlarged Edition D.N. JHA MANOHAR 2010 First published 1977 under the title Ancient India: An Introductory Outline Ninth Reprint 1997 Hindi translation first published 1980 Eighth reprint 1997 Chinese translation first published 1984 This revised and enlarged edition first published December 1998 Paperback edition first published 1999 Reprinted April 1999, January 2000, July 2000, March 2001, June 2002, July 2003, August 2004, July 2005, July 2006. March 2007, July 2008, September 2009 June 2010 ©D.N. Jha, 1977,1998 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without prior permission of the author and the publisher ISBN 81-7304-266-7 (Hb) ISBN 81-7304-285-3 (Pb) Published by Ajay Kumar Jain for Manohar Publishers & Distributors 4753/23 Ansari Road, Daryaganj New Delhi 110 002 Typeset by AJ Software Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi 110 005 Printed at Print Perfect Greater Noida IN MEMORIAM DAMODAR DHARMANAND KOSAMBI (31 July 1907-29 June 1966) >* Contents List of Illustrations 9 List of Maps 11 Preface to the Second Edition 13 Preface to the First Edition 15 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 17 Beginning of European interest in Indian past; Early Orientalists; Christian missionaries; Utilitarians; Administrator-historians; Orientalism; Indian response to British view of Indian past; Influence of social reform movements and nationalism; Glorification of ancient India; Marxist trend: D.D. Kosambi; Need for a new periodization; Scope of the book. CHAPTER 2: FROM PREHISTORY TO THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION 27 Prehistoric beginnings; Neolithic communities; Chalcolithic farmers; Origin and extent of the Harappan civilization; Urban planning; Subsistence strategies; Political organization; Script; Craft, technology and trade; Religious beliefs; Decline of the Harappan civilization. CHAPTER 3: THE ARYANS AND THE VEDIC LIFE 41 The Aryan theory of race;Vedic literature; Rigvedic Aryans and the autochthons; Pastoralism;Tribal polity; Social differentiation; Rigvedic religion; Later Vedic phase; Aryans move eastwards; Transition to agricultural economy; crystallization of castes; Social changes; Incipient territorial monarchy; Sacrificial cult; Upanishadic reaction; Ashrama system. CONTENTS CHAPTER 4: THE MATERIAL BACKGROUND OF RELIGIOUS DISSENT: JAINISM AND BUDDHISM Sources; Material milieu; Iron technology; Settled agriculture; Rise of new classes; Vardhamana Mahavira; Jainism; Gautama Buddha; Buddhism; Social changes and new religious attitudes. CHAPTER 5: THE FIRST TERRITORIAL STATES I he mahajanapadas; Rise of Magadha; Ajatashatru;The Nandas; Alexander's invasion and its impact; Bases and features of monarchical states; Nature of 'republics'. CHAPTER 6: THE FIRST EMPIRE Sources; The Maurya kings; Magadhan expansion;Administrative machinery; Kautilyan economic policies; Society and religion; Ashoka and his dhamma; Maurya art; Decline of the empire. CHAPTER 7: INVASIONS, TRADE AND CULTURE c. 200 BC-AD 3.00 Sources; Shungas and Kanvas; Re-emergence of tribal states; Movements from the. north-west; Indo- Greeks; Indo-Parthians; Kushanas;The Satavahanas in the Deccan; State formation in the tar south; Agrarian changes; Land grants; Trade with the Western world and South-East Asia; Monetization; Urbanization; Proliferation of arts and crafts; Guilds; Social crisis; Buddhism and Jainism; Brahmanical religion; Art; Cave architecture; Sculpture and terracotta; Literature. CHAPTER 8: THE MYTH OF THE GOLDEN AGE i he Gupta Rulers; their conquests and administrative organization; Agrarian developments and new forms of exploitation; Decline of trade; De-urbanization; Position of women; Changes in social structure; Rigid varna distinctions; Social tensions; Brahmanical religion and its social role; Buddhism and Jainism; Philosophical systems; Art and architecture; Sculpture and painting; Literature; How golden was the 'Golden Age'? Bibliography Index 62 78 92 111 149 175 197 Illustrations Plate 1: View of site showing Great Bath, Mohenjodaro, Pakistan, Harappa period. Plate 2: Female figure, front and back views. From Mohenjodaro, Pakistan, Mature Harappa period, c. 2100-1750 bc. Bronze. Ht: 11.5 cm. National Museum, New Delhi. Plate 3: Punch-marked coins. Plate 4: Yakshi chauri-bearer. Didarganj, Patna, c. third- second century bc. Polished sandstone. Ht: 160 cm, 204 cm with pedestal. Patna Museum, Patna. Plate 5: Obverse and reverse of (a) coin of Kshaharata Bhumaka from Mathura; (b) coin of Kaniska, son of Huvishka, found at Sonkh, Mathura; and (c) gold coin of Huvishka. Plate 6: Anathapindika's gift of Jetavana to Buddha showing the water vessel essential for pouring water to make the gift. Bharhut, Central India, Sunga period, second century bc. Indian Museum, Calcutta. Plate 7: Stupa I (Great Stupa). Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, c. third century Be through first century ad. Plate 8: Interior of Chaitya hall. Karle, Maharashtra. Kshaharata, Shaka period, c. AD 120. Plate 9: Female terracotta figure. From Tamluk, West Bengal, Sunga period, c. second-first century bc. Ht: 21 cm. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Plate 10: Life events of Shakyamuni Buddha. Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh, Satavahana period, 31 36 67 109 127 132 137 138 139 10 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS c. second century. White marble. Ht: 160 cm. British Museum, London. 140 Plate 11: Kanishka. Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, Kushan period, reign of Kanishka or later c. second century. Reddish sandstone. Ht: 170 cm. Mathura Museum, Mathura. 141 Plate 12: Woman with a bird cage. From a railing pillar, Bhutesar, Mathura, Kushana period, second century ad. Red sand-stone. Ht: 129 cm. Indian Museum, Calcutta. 142 Plate 13: Vedika pillar with Greek warrior. Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh, Sunga period, c. 100-80 bc. Reddish brown sandstone. Indian Museum, Calcutta. 143 Plate 14: Standing Buddha. From Bactro-Gandhara region, Pakistan, Kushana period. Ht: 150 cm. approx. Lahore Museum, Lahore. 144 Plate 15: Coins of Samudragupta: Chandragupta I— Kumaradevi type (1-3), Standard type (4-6). 157 Plate 16: Gupta temple, Sanchi. 166 Plate 17: Facade of Ajanta cave XXVI. 168 Plate 18: Details of an apsara. Fresco, Ajanta cave. 169 Map Map Map Map Map Map Map Map 8: Map 9: Map 10: Maps facing page 17 29 53 64 81 96 113 120 124 India: Physical Features Extent of the Harappa Culture Distribution of Painted Grey Ware Distribution of Northern Black Polished Ware The Mahajanapadas The Empire of Asoka {c. 274-236) India in about ad 150 India (c. 200 bc-ad 300) Ancient Trade Routes The Gupta Empire at the Close of the Fourth Century 152 Preface to the Second Edition The present book is a substantially modified and enlarged version of my Ancient India: An Introductory Outline, first published in 1977. It has since had nine reprints in English and eight in Hindi as well as a Chinese edition (1984).The survival of the book for more than two decades has forced me to both review and revise it. All the chapters of the book have, therefore, been rewritten