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Germano submitted to the Faculty of the School of International Service of The American University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Masters of Arts in International Affairs Signatures of Committee: Chair:. (jQ 0 - r t > Dean of the School of International Service ' i _________________ Date \J 1995 The American University Washington, D.C. 20016 774? t h e AMERICAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 1378690 Copyright 1995 by Germano, Maria L. AH rights reserved. UMI Microform 1378690 Copyright 1996, by UMI Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. UMI 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, MI 48103 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. c COPYRIGHT b y MARIA L. GERMANO 1995 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. THE DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONALISM IN AZERBAIJAN: A HISTORY by Maria L. Germano ABSTRACT The increase of ethnic conflicts has created security challenges for the international community. In the Caucasus, the subject of this study, the collapse of the Soviet empire led to a resurgent nationalism. This analysis treats both historical and contemporary nationalism in the Caucasus, beginning with confrontation in the early 1900s among Armenians, Georgians and Azerbaijanis. The historic hostilities between Armenians and Azerbaijanis over Nagorno- Karabakh have been renewed, and the historic roles of the regional players— Russia, Turkey, and Iran— come into play in the tense Armenian-Azerbaijani relationship. The study concludes that extreme nationalism in Azerbaijan has had a negative impact on efforts to build a viable state: political and economic development have suffered as resources are spent on waging a war. An additional finding is that the country needs to refocus efforts from national conflict to national development, an area in which the international community can play a positive role. ii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I want to express my profound thanks to Dr. William Kincade, whose constant guidance I greatly appreciated, and to Dr. Anne Cahn, whose comments I found invaluable. I would also like to thank Louis Klaveras and Frederick Williams for their encouragement and, last but not least, my parents for their love and support. iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii ILLUSTRATION vii Chapter I INTRODUCTION 1 Nationalism and the Collapse of the Soviet Union: An Overview Azerbaijan in Brief Analytical Aims Nature of Nationalism Nationalism Defined Ethnicity Nation State Self-determination Sovereignty Analytical Organization II. THE SOVIET UNION AS EMPIRE AND ITS COLLAPSE .... 20 The Soviet Union as Empire Metropole Motives Weak Periphery Penetrating the Periphery International System Disintegration of the Empire iv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rise of Nationalism in the Soviet Union Communist Ideology Glasnost Perestroika Internal Opposition Moscow Resists Break-Up Chapter III. NATIONALISM EMERGES IN THE CAUCASUS ............. Overview Caucasus: Brief History Armenia Georgia Azerbaijan Independence in the Caucasus \ Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict: History Caucasus Nationalism under the Soviet System Soviet Nationalities Policy Summary IV. INDEPENDENCE IN AZERBAIJAN ........................ Overview Azerbaijan under Gorbachev Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict Failure to Stop the Violence Azerbaij an 1s Leaders After the Soviet Union v Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict Political-Military Developments Armenia and the Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians Views of the Conflict Peace Efforts Chapter V. CONCLUSIONS ....................................... 1 1 2 Features and Effects of Nationalism Caucasus in Context Observations Paradox of Nationalism Future Developments Outcomes to the Conflict Status of Nagorno-Karabakh International Organizations Political and Economic Developments BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................... 134 vi Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ILLUSTRATION Figure 1. Caucasus and Surrounding States . vii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The views and opinions expressed in this paper are solely the author's and do not necessarily represent those of the U.S. Department of State. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Nationalism and the Collapse of the Soviet Union: An Overview Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev's rise as leader of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in March 1985 marked the beginning of a new era in, as well as the beginning of the end of, Soviet history. Gorbachev introduced a set of reforms in the Soviet Union meant to strengthen the country. This wide range of reforms was aimed at every aspect of Soviet life— military, economic, political, social— and influenced the lives of the people in the Soviet periphery. In order to pursue his reform plans, Gorbachev ceded some of the center's power to the republics. Gorbachev sought to move away from the historical Soviet method of making changes— from top to bottom.^ Instead, he gave the republics more freedom to address the problems of the Soviet Union, thus empowering them to aid in the country's restructuring and growth, which would benefit both the periphery and the center. But Moscow's loosening grip on the republics turned into a tug-of-war between the center and periphery over power in the regions. The republics, discontented with Moscow's centrist policies, 1 Martha Olcott, "Gorbachev's National Dilemma," Journal of International Affairs 42 (Spring 1989): 400. 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. sought greater national freedoms. This tension hindered the central leadership's attempts at reform, forcing Moscow to concentrate on the immediate problem of keeping nationalist movements under control. Demonstrations throughout the Soviet Union, including those in Yerevan, Armenia, in 1989, underscored the rise in vocal nationalist sentiments and Moscow's unreadiness to address these concerns. Confrontations between Moscow and the various republics, including the dominant Russian republic, advanced the Soviet Union's demise. The country was plagued by a range of hostilities, from direct center-periphery tension, as reflected in Moscow's January 1991 use of force in the Baltic republics, to conflict between republics, such as the Armenian and Azerbaijani dispute over Nagorno-Karabakh, a predominantly Armenian enclave in Azerbaijan.(See Figure 1) Also, Moscow had to contend with rising Russian nationalism. Like other groups, Russians rebelled against the Soviet government's lack of sensitivity to their ethnic concerns. Unlike the other ethnic groups, Russians comprised a majority in the Communist Party. The collapse of the Soviet Union was as much a result of Russian nationalism in Russia as of nationalism in the non-Russian republics. For "in the eyes of Russian nationalists, seven decades of Communism. .left Russia