Explorations in Ethnicity and Social Change among Zulu-speaking San Descendents of the Drakensberg Mountains, KwaZulu-Natal By Michael Francis Supervisor: Keyan Tomaselli Submitted to the Faculty of Human Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, in fulfilment of the requirements of a PhD in Culture, Communication and Media Studies 1 List of Acronyms used in thesis.................................................................... 4 List of Figures used in thesis ........................................................................ 4 Abstract........................................................................................................ 5 Declaration................................................................................................... 6 A note on pronunciation ............................................................................... 9 The Field site.............................................................................................. 10 Introduction................................................................................................ 11 Naming the Bushmen................................................................................................ 21 Outline of chapters.................................................................................................... 27 Chapter One – Imaging the San.................................................................. 30 Ethnography of the Southern San .............................................................................. 30 The purity of the ‘Bushman’ ..................................................................................... 30 Essentialised imagery of the Bushmen ...................................................................... 31 The Wild Bushmen ................................................................................................... 34 Research into the San of the Drakensberg.................................................................. 36 The Kalahari Debate ................................................................................................. 39 Contemporary ‘Culturalism’...................................................................................... 44 Anthropological Authenticity: Synthetic memory, Performative acts, and Anthropological Facts ............................................................................................... 45 Synthetic Memory and Mass Mediated Imagery........................................................ 54 Zulus as Different Types of Africans......................................................................... 56 Zulu Nationalism ...................................................................................................... 60 Chapter Two - Methodology: Anthropological cultural studies................... 64 Participant Observation............................................................................................. 64 Study of Ordering ..................................................................................................... 73 Invention of Culture .................................................................................................. 76 Chapter Three - A brief history of the Drakensberg.................................... 78 Prehistory and Archaeology of the Drakensberg........................................................ 78 Early Colonial History .............................................................................................. 81 Chief Dumisa and the Botwas ................................................................................... 84 Archaeological Colonisation of the Southern San...................................................... 87 A Family Tree........................................................................................................... 92 A Family History ...................................................................................................... 96 Chapter Four- Contested histories: A critique in the Rock Art.................. 103 Images of Mystery .................................................................................................. 103 Rain Animals and Snake Stories of the Rock Paintings ........................................... 107 2 Rain Makers and Shamans: a continuation from the past ......................................... 114 Imitation or Non-San Rock Art ............................................................................... 117 The Crossing: The creation of the Eland ceremony.................................................. 120 Cultural Re-invention.............................................................................................. 123 The Eland Ceremony............................................................................................... 125 Cultural Survival/Cultural Revival .......................................................................... 134 Chapter Five - Subjects and subjectivities: Where do we all fit in?........... 138 The Significance of the Umuzi ................................................................................ 140 Baasskap and Apartheid Era Race Relations............................................................ 144 Fieldwork Experiences as Subjective Encounters .................................................... 147 Utshwala, Beer, and ‘Hotstuff’: Drinking with the Amadoda .................................. 151 Why Study Others? ................................................................................................. 156 Chapter Six - Poverty and Parks: Rural development, rural poverty and structural violence .................................................................................... 161 The cycle of poverty................................................................................................ 161 Competition Over Resources Between the Parks and People ................................... 164 Selling Ethnicity and Development ......................................................................... 173 Commodity Culture and Cultures of Commodities: Ethnicity and Development...... 184 Structural violence .................................................................................................. 188 Chapter Seven – Ethnic identities and their Public Representation ........... 191 Survival International.............................................................................................. 193 Day of Reconciliation: One hundred years late........................................................ 198 San Organisations of Southern Africa...................................................................... 200 Traditionalists Versus Modernists ........................................................................... 202 Conclusions.............................................................................................. 208 Bibliography ............................................................................................ 221 Primary Sources...................................................................................................... 221 Published Sources ................................................................................................... 221 Unpublished papers and thesis................................................................................. 237 Government Documents.......................................................................................... 238 Media Sources ........................................................................................................ 239 Historical Archives ................................................................................................. 240 Websites ................................................................................................................. 240 Music...................................................................................................................... 240 Filmography............................................................................................................ 241 3 List of Acronyms used in thesis ANC – African National Congress CKGR- Central Kalahari Game Reserve IFP – Inkatha Freedom Party KZN – KwaZulu-Natal NKCC – National Khoi-San Consultative Conference RADP - Remote Area Dweller Programme SASC – South African San Council SASI – Southern African San Institute SI – Survival International TAKI – The Ancient Knowledge Initiative UN- United Nations UNESCO – United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization WIMSA – Working group of Indigenous Minorities in Southern Africa List of Figures used in thesis Figure 1: A view of the Kamberg Peak from the village…………………………….......14 Figure 2: Bushman Boy…………………………………………………………….........35 Figure 3: Shaka Zulu bus…………………………………………………………...........55 Figure 4: Red buck………………………………………………………………….......104 Figure 5: Red jackal……………………………………………………………….........104 Figure 6: White buck……………………………………………………………….......104 Figure 7: Faded eland…………………………………………………………………..104 Figure 8: Rosetta panel Game Pass Shelter…………………………………………….105 Figure 9: Full panel of eland………………………………………………………........105 Figure 10: Eland headed snake……..………………………………………………..…109 Figure 11: Orpen’s untitled copy of rock painting……………………………………...110 Figure 12: Rain Bull……………………………………………………………….........116 Figure 13: Imitation eland…………………………………………………………........118 Figure 14: Imitation buck……………………………………………………………….118 Figure 15: My hut……………………………………………………………….