POLITICAL REPRESENTATION & POLICY AGENDAS IN THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH PROJECT DIRECTED BY Victoria E. Rodríguez Policy Research Project Report 179 Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs Policy Research Project Report Number 179 Women & Politics in the Americas: Political Representation and Policy Agendas in the Executive Branch Project Directed by Victoria E. Rodríguez Ashbel Smith Professor of Public Affairs A report by the Policy Research Project on Women and Politics in the Americas May 2014 The LBJ School of Public Affairs publishes a wide range of public policy issue titles. ISBN-13: 978-0-89940-797-5 ©2015 by The University of Texas at Austin All rights reserved. No part of this publication or any corresponding electronic text and/or images may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Cover design by Ashlyn S. Webb Policy Research Project Participants Students Alexandra Araiza specialized in Latin American economies at Dartmouth College and graduated in 2009. After working for the State Department’s Economic Desk in Madrid, she returned to Austin to work and live with her fiancé and son. In addition to her interest in the impact of economic policies worldwide, she also writes short stories in Spanish and English. She graduated from the LBJ School in May 2014. Nadia Blair did her undergraduate degree at the University of San Francisco and graduated in 2009 with a BA in Politics and Sociology. She taught preschool and wrote curriculum for four years before entering the LBJ School to pursue a Master’s in Public Affairs. Originally Nadia is from Westchester, New York, but now lives in Austin with her husband and two young sons. Sydney Briggs holds a BA in Spanish from Rutgers University and is a Master’s candidate in Public Affairs at UT-Austin. She currently works with the LBJ School’s Child and Family Research Partnership and in the future hopes to work on policies to combat and prevent gender- based violence. Belén Cumsille is a native of Santiago, Chile, where she majored in Sociology at the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile. While at LBJ, she interned at PREAL, the education division of the Inter-American Dialogue in Washington, DC. After completing her Master’s in Public Affairs in May 2015, she plans to return to Chile and work in the public sector. Shirley Green grew up in Port Isabel, Texas, and earned a BA in Latin American Studies from St. Edward’s University in Austin, Texas. In December 2014, Shirley completed her Master’s degree in Global Policy Studies at the LBJ School of Public Affairs at the University of Texas and joined the US Foreign Service as a Political Officer. Shirley’s portfolio includes human rights, interethnic conflict, economic sanctions, and national security issues. Amelia Koplos, class of 2015, is a current student at UT’s LBJ School of Public Affairs. With a background in African American studies, she plans to continue advocacy and lobby work for various state-level social policy issues, including mental health and education. Camille Maddox is originally from Minneapolis, Minnesota, and received her bachelor’s degree in Economics and African American Studies from Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia. This summer she interned for NeighborWorks America’s Community Building and Engagement Division in Boston. She plans to return to Minneapolis and pursue a career in community development after she graduates from the LBJ School. Mariana Morante is from Mexico and is in her third-year of the Master’s dual degree in Global Policy and Latin American Studies. During this past summer, she conducted research in Guadalajara, Mexico, which looked at how undocumented migration in transit from Central America creates, challenges, and reshapes new socio-spatial conditions in the city. Hanna Murphy-Pack received a dual MA/MBA degree at the LBJ School of Public Affairs and the McCombs School of Business in May 2014. Hanna’s areas of interest are small and medium business in international development and strategic corporate social responsibility. Faith Sandberg received a Bachelor of Social Work from The University of Texas at Austin prior to coming to the LBJ School. While taking classes this summer, she interned with the Center for Policy & Innovation at the Texas Department of Aging & Disability Services. After graduation, Faith hopes to focus on education policy at the state or federal level. Katherine Strandberg came to public affairs from a background in feminist theory. Her professional experience is in social justice issues, but she still isn’t quite sure what she wants to be when she grows up. Ashlyn Webb will graduate in May 2015 with a Master’s in Public Affairs. She is from College Station, Texas, and earned a Bachelor of Science in Public Relations at The University of Texas at Austin before attending the LBJ School. Her policy interests include domestic education, political participation, and the impact of religion on activism. Clare Zutz is currently a Teaching Assistant and a Research Assistant at the RGK Center for Philanthropy and Community Service at the LBJ School. She received a BA in Women’s and Gender Studies and Spanish from Middlebury College. Project Director Victoria E. Rodríguez holds the University’s Ashbel Smith Professorship at the LBJ School, and was Vice Provost and Dean of Graduate Studies at The University of Texas at Austin from 2002 to 2012. Prior to joining UT Austin in 1991, she held teaching positions at the University of California, San Diego and the University of Texas at El Paso. She was also a Research Associate at the University of Cambridge and served as a consultant for the World Bank. Professor Rodríguez received a bachelor’s degree from the Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Mexico, and a Ph.D. in Political Science from the University of California, Berkeley. Her scholarly work has focused on governance, democratization, and political change in Mexico. In addition to numerous books, articles, and book chapters on Mexican politics and public policy, she is the author of Decentralization in Mexico: From Reforma Municipal to Solidaridad to Nuevo Federalismo (1997). Her work includes path- breaking research and two books on women in Mexican politics: Women’s Participation in Mexican Political Life (1998) and Women in Contemporary Mexican Politics (2003). Her books have also been published in Spanish in revised and updated editions. Currently she is working with her graduate students on a major research project on the female presidents of Latin America. In 2000 Professor Rodríguez received jointly with Professor Peter Ward the Ohtli Medal, the highest honor granted by the Mexican government outside Mexico. In 2002 Hispanic Business named her as one of the 100 most influential Hispanics in the United States and one of the top 20 Hispanic women. Special Acknowledgments Laura Spagnolo, who is from Argentina and earned both a Master’s degree and a PhD in Public Policy at the LBJ School. Laura was fully engaged with the research and writing of the report, particularly with the Argentina case study. Santiago Téllez, who is from Colombia and is currently pursuing a PhD in Public Policy at the LBJ School. Santiago’s technical skills were invaluable to this project and the preparation of this report. vi Table of Contents List of Tables ......................................................................................................... xi List of Figures ...................................................................................................... xiii Executive Summary ...............................................................................................xv Foreword ............................................................................................................. xvii Chapter 1: Introduction ..........................................................................................19 Structure of the Report ..................................................................................19 Methodology and Literature Review ............................................................20 Sources ..........................................................................................................26 Chapter 2: The Statistics: Women Holding Political Office Since 1950 ...............29 Regional Case Studies...................................................................................33 Conclusion ....................................................................................................42 Chapter 3: Quotas: The United Nations, Beijing, and the Quota Laws .................45 Introduction ...................................................................................................45 Viewing the Beijing Conference As a Platform for Progress .......................48 Electoral Systems and Quotas .......................................................................50 Legislative Quota Characteristics and Implementation ................................54 Case Study Countries, Electoral Systems, and Quotas .................................56 Three Dimensions of Representation ............................................................59 The Impact of Quotas on Representation......................................................61 Key Arguments for and against Gender Quotas ...........................................65