This publication provides an approach for the socio-economic valuation of pollinator-friendly practices at a landscape/farm level. The text was prepared as part of the Global Environment Fund (GEF) supported project ‘Conservation and management of pollinators for sustainable agriculture, through an ecosystem approach’ implemented in seven countries – Brazil, Ghana, India, Kenya, Nepal, Pakistan and South Africa. blurb to be provided The project is coordinated by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) with implementation support from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). EXTENSION OF KNOWLEDGE BASE ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT CAPACITY BUILDING MAINSTREAMING backcover photos to be selected cover photo/s to be selected GLOBAL ACTION ON POLLINATION SERVICES FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE THE POLLINATION OF CULTIVATED PLANTS A COMPENDIUM FOR PRACTITIONERS Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Volume 1 Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy www.fao.org/pollination www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/agp-home e-mail: [email protected] logos to be confirmed POLLINATION SERVICES FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE POLLINATOR SAFETY IN AGRICULTURE THE POLLINATION OF CULTIVATED PLANTS A COMPENDIUM FOR PRACTITIONERS Volume 1 Edited by David Ward Roubik Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Ancon, Republic of Panama FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS ROME 2017 disclaimer to be provided CONTENTS contents pages to be laid out The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion Acknowledgements whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development List of tables status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these List of figures have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. List of contributors Preface to the second edition The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of FAO. Part I ISBN xxx-xx-x-xxxxxx-x INTRODUCTION © FAO, 2017 Chapter 1. LESSONS LEARNED OVER THE LAST 20 YEARS (DAVID W. ROUBIK) 1.1 Sustainable pollination and pollinators FAO encourages the use, reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product. Except where otherwise indicated, 1.1.1 Tropical and temperate zones material may be copied, downloaded and printed for private study, research and teaching purposes, or for use in non-commercial 1.1.2 Pollinator backup and restoration products or services, provided that appropriate acknowledgement of FAO as the source and copyright holder is given and that FAO’s 1.2 The extent of progress to date endorsement of users’ views, products or services is not implied in any way. 1.2.1 An ecological overview All requests for translation and adaptation rights, and for resale and other commercial use rights should be made via www.fao.org/ 1.2.2 Major shifts in pollination landscapes contact-us/licence-request or addressed to [email protected]. 1.3 The pollination factor in croplands FAO information products are available on the FAO website (www.fao.org/publications) and can be purchased through publications- 1.3.1 Crop harvest constraints [email protected]. 1.3.2 The nature of agricultural sustainability 1.3.3 A taxonomic impediment for crops 1.3.4 Crop pollination ecology Cover photos 1.3.5 Prospects in pollination biology left to right: 1.4 How to use this book © author, References Further reading Back cover photos left to right: © author, © author, © author, © author Chapter 2. POLLINATION, POLLINATORS AND POLLINATION MODES: ECOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 2.1 Pollination: a general overview (R.C. Sihag) 2.1.1 The flower 2.1.2 Pollination modes and pollinators This publication provides information on the management of bee pollinators in apple orchards. 2.1.3 The ecological importance of pollinators and pollination modes The text was prepared as part of the Global Environment Fund (GEF) supported project ‘Conservation 2.1.4 The economic importance of pollinators and management of pollinators for sustainable agriculture, through an ecosystem approach’ 2.1.5 Conclusion implemented in seven countries – Brazil, Ghana, India, Kenya, Nepal, Pakistan and South Africa. 2.2 Conserving pollinators for agriculture, forestry and nature (P.G. Kevan) The project is coordinated by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) 2.2.1 Pesticides with implementation support from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 2.2.2 Habitat destruction THE POLLINATION OF CULTIVATED PLANTS: A COMPENDIUM FOR PRACTITIONERS - Volume 1 iii 2.2.3 Pollinator diseases 4.6 IPM recommendations for conserving wild pollen bees for tree fruit pollination 2.2.4 Pollinator competition 4.7 The institutionalization of pollinator health protection 2.2.5 Diversification of pollinators References 2.2.6 Conclusion References Chapter 5. A NATIVE GROUND NESTING BEE (NOMIA MELANDERI) SUSTAINABLY MANAGED TO POLLINATE ALFALFA ACROSS AN INTENSIVELY AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPE (J.H. CANE) 3. SUSTAINABLE YIELDS, SUSTAINABLE GROWTH OR NEITHER? 5.1 Introduction 3.1 The potential for insect pollinators to alleviate global pollination deficits and enhance 5.2 Description of survey methodologies yields of fruit and seed crops (L.A. Garibaldi, S.A., Cunningham, M.A. Aizen, L. Packer and 5.2.1 Nesting aggregations L.D. Harder) 5.2.2 Population measurement 3.1.1 Introduction 5.2.3 Nest hole utilization 3.1.2 Pollen as a resource that limits crop yield 5.3 Survey results 3.1.3 Pollinator dependence in fruit and seed crops 5.3.1 Nest hole utilization 3.1.4 Are pollination deficits common? 5.3.2 Population variability 3.1.5 Can honey bee management alone reduce pollination deficits? 5.3.3 Aggregation and metapopulation growth 3.1.6 Why do wild insects contribute to crop yield? 5.3.4 Subsurface moisture and aggregation growth 3.1.7 Sound practices that reduce pollination deficits 5.4 Discussion 3.1.8 Natural history of bees and their potential for crop pollination 5.5 Conclusions 3.1.9 Bee introductions References 3.1.10 Conclusion References Chapter 6. BUCKWHEAT POLLINATION IN A COMPLEX TEMPERATE LANDSCAPE (H. TAKI) 6.1 Introduction 3.2 Alternatives to artificial pollinator populations (R. Krell) 6.2 Buckwheat plants and flowers 3.2.1 Introduction 6.3 Buckwheat as a food 6.4 Pollination studies of buckwheat 3.2.2 Mechanical pollination and chemical pollination 6.4.1 Pollination bagging experiments 3.2.3 Habitat management for wild pollinators 6.4.2 Buckwheat pollination success and pollinator flight range 3.2.4 Crop selection 6.4.3 Buckwheat pollination and landscape matrix quality 3.2.5 Pesticides 6.5 Conclusion 3.2.6 Cultivation practices References 3.2.7 Conclusion References Chapter 7. SMALLHOLDER POLLINATION PERSPECTIVES 7.1 Experiences promoting pollination technology among smallholder farmers in Kenya, through Part II Farmer Field Schools (M. Kasina) APPLIED POLLINATION: BASIC APPROACHES 7.1.1 Introduction and initial results 7.1.2 Field studies Chapter 4. INTEGRATING POLLINATOR HEALTH INTO TREE FRUIT IPM – A CASE STUDY OF 7.1.3 Conclusion and recommendations PENNSYLVANIA APPLE PRODUCTION (D.J. BIDDINGER, E.G. RAJOTTE AND N.K. JOSHI) References 4.1 IPM and the recent pollinator crisis 7.2 Pollination services and melon in family farming areas, northeastern Brazil (L.H.P Kiill, M.F. 4.2 The importance of pollinators in apple production Ribeiro, K.M.M. Siqueira and E.M.S. Silva) 4.2.1 Non-honey bee pollinators providing insurance for sustainable apple pollination 7.2.1 Introduction 4.2.2 Pollinator diversity during apple bloom 7.2.2 Cultivation expansion 4.2.3 Roles of landscape and floristic diversity in support of apple orchard pollinators 7.2.3 Pollination ecology 4.3 IPM, pesticides and pollinators in apple 7.2.4 Pollination service in family farming areas 4.4 Pesticide recommendations in apple IPM to protect pollinators 7.2.5 Conclusion 4.5 Fungicides References contents pages to be laid out contents pages to be laid out iv THE POLLINATION OF CULTIVATED PLANTS: A COMPENDIUM FOR PRACTITIONERS - Volume 1 THE POLLINATION OF CULTIVATED PLANTS: A COMPENDIUM FOR PRACTITIONERS - Volume 1 v 7.3 Pollination in some Kenyan smallholder crops (D.J. Martins) 8.10 Vitaceae 7.3.1 Hawkmoth and skipper butterfly pollination of papaya 8.10.1 Grapes 7.3.2 Honey bee pollination of irrigated dry season passionfruit 8.11 Fabaceae 7.3.3 Native insect and bee pollination of coriander 8.11.1 White clover 7.3.4 Native bee pollination of eggplant 8.11.2 Berseem References 8.11.3 Lucerne/Alfalfa 8.11.4 Field, faba, tick or horse beans Part III 8.11.5 Red clover APPLIED POLLINATION: CROP REQUIREMENTS 8.12 Asteraceae 8.12.1 Sunflower Chapter 8. TEMPERATE AND SUBTROPICAL AREAS (R.D. MACFARLANE) 8.13 Solanaceae 8.1 Ericaceae (J.H. Cane) 8.13.1 Tomatoes 8.1.1 Cranberry and lingonberry References 8.1.2 Floral biology of cranberry 8.1.3 Pollination of cranberry Chapter 9. APPLIED POLLINATION AND SELECTED STUDIES 8.1.4 Pollinators of cranberries 9.1 Applied pollination in America (D.W. Roubik) 8.1.5 Blueberry 9.1.1 Overview 8.1.6 Floral biology of blueberry 9.1.2 Plant genera and pollination 8.1.7 Pollination of blueberry 9.2 Applied pollination in Asia and Africa (P.G. Kevan and J.K.S. Mbaya) 8.1.8 Pollinators of blueberry 9.2.1 Applied pollination in Asia – crop types 8.2 Brassicaceae 9.2.2 Applied pollination in Africa – overview 8.2.1 Swede rape 9.2.3 Pollination studies in African countries – by region 8.3 Rosaceae 9.2.4 Recommendations for future work 8.3.1 Almonds References 8.3.2 Peaches and nectarines 9.3 Selected studies 8.3.3 Plums and cherries 9.3.1 Brazil nut (Bertholletia) in the Amazon (M.