METALS IN LBA MINOAN AND MYCENAEAN SOCIETIES ON CRETE: A QUANTITATIVE APPROACH LENA HAKULIN ACADEMIC DISSERTATION TO BE PUBLICLY DISCUSSED, BY DUE PERMISSION OF THE FACULTY OF ARTS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI IN AUDITORIUM XV, ON THE 23RD OF OCTOBER, 2013 AT 12 O’CLOCK. HELSINKI 2013 © Lena Hakulin ISBN 978-952-10-9268-8 (paperback) ISBN 978-952-10-9269-5 (PDF) PDF version available at: http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/ Unigrafia Oy Yliopistopaino Helsinki, 2013 Cover layout: Anders Hedman Photo: Front cover: Lena Hakulin; back cover: Jill Aschan ii CONTENTS Contents .......................................................................................................................... iii Abstract ......................................................................................................................... vii Abstrakt ........................................................................................................................ viii Preface ............................................................................................................................ ix Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... x List of figures, tables and maps ..................................................................................... xii Abbreviations ................................................................................................................ xv PART I. CONTEXT OF THE STUDY ............................................... 1 1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1 1.1 Cretan Overview ................................................................................. 2 1.2 Metals and Metallurgy ........................................................................ 4 1.3 Aims .................................................................................................... 6 1.4 Methods ............................................................................................... 8 1.5 Chronology, Terms and Definitions ................................................. 11 Chronology .................................................................................................. 11 Terms and Definitions ................................................................... 12 1.6 Limitations and Problems ................................................................. 13 Limitations .................................................................................. 13 Problems .................................................................................... 14 1.7 Contents ............................................................................................ 15 2. METAL STUDIES ..........................................................................................17 2.1 Metal studies on BA Crete ................................................................ 17 2.2 Metal weight ..................................................................................... 20 Weight and value .......................................................................... 20 Metrological systems ..................................................................... 21 Archaeological evidence ................................................................ 22 Textual evidence ........................................................................... 23 Monetary functions ....................................................................... 23 Quantification of metal volumes ...................................................... 24 2.3 Metal cycle ........................................................................................ 24 Flow of metal ............................................................................... 25 Recycling .................................................................................... 25 Hoarding .................................................................................... 26 2.4 Metals and society ............................................................................. 27 iii PART II. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE STUDY ......................... 28 3. FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY ................................................................... 29 3.1 Method .............................................................................................. 29 3.2 Key parameters of the metal finds .................................................... 30 Function ..................................................................................... 30 Find context ................................................................................. 31 Weight ........................................................................................ 31 3.3 Key aspects of the metal assemblages .............................................. 32 Spatial distribution ....................................................................... 32 Divisions of metal weight ............................................................... 33 Metal cycle .................................................................................. 38 Metal profile ................................................................................ 39 3.4 Metals in society ............................................................................... 39 4. STUDY MATERIAL ....................................................................................... 40 4.1 Coverage of the material ................................................................... 40 4.2 Finished bronze objects ..................................................................... 40 Metal assemblage structure ............................................................ 40 Main object types .......................................................................... 42 4.3 Raw materials .................................................................................... 48 Ingots ........................................................................................ 48 Other raw material ....................................................................... 49 4.4 Refractory materials .......................................................................... 49 4.5 Metal weights .................................................................................... 50 Division by period and region ......................................................... 50 Division by object group and type .................................................... 53 4.6 Material management ........................................................................ 55 5. NEOPALATIAL PERIOD ............................................................................... 56 5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 56 5.2 East Crete ......................................................................................... 58 Society ........................................................................................ 58 Metals ......................................................................................... 60 Spatial distribution of metal .................................................. 61 Divisions of metal weight ...................................................... 66 Metal cycle ........................................................................ 66 Metal profile ...................................................................... 67 Metals in society ........................................................................... 68 5.3 Central Crete ..................................................................................... 72 Society ........................................................................................ 72 Metals ......................................................................................... 75 Spatial distribution of metal .................................................. 76 Divisions of metal weight ...................................................... 80 Metal cycle ........................................................................ 81 Metal profile ...................................................................... 82 Metals in society ........................................................................... 83 iv 6. FINAL PALATIAL PERIOD ............................................................................ 87 6.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 87 6.2 Central Crete ..................................................................................... 88 Society ........................................................................................ 88 Metals ........................................................................................ 89 Spatial distribution of metal .................................................. 90 Divisions of metal weight ...................................................... 92 Metal cycle ........................................................................ 93 Textual evidence ................................................................. 94 Metal profile ...................................................................... 95 Metals in society ........................................................................... 96 7. POSTPALATIAL PERIOD ............................................................................. 99 7.1 Introduction ......................................................................................