Nurturing nature connectedness through primary education? A study into the role of nature experiences in primary education in The Netherlands in children’s connectedness to nature as precursor of pro-environmental behaviour R.S. van Tol, Bsc Master thesis Forest & Nature Conservation Supervision: Dr. Birgit Elands, Prof. dr. Matthijs Schouten December 10th, 2019 Author: Reineke van Tol, Bsc Student nr: 940302837110 Master: Forest and Nature conservation (management track) Department: Forest and nature conservation policy group (FNP) Supervision: Dr. Birgit Elands and Prof. Dr. Matthijs Schouten University: Wageningen University & Research Date: December 10th, 2019 Contact: [email protected]; [email protected]; 2 "Earth and sky, woods and fields, lakes and rivers, the mountain and the sea, are excellent schoolmasters; they teach us more than we can ever learn from books." — John Lubbock 3 Content Preface ..................................................................................................................................................... 7 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................. 9 Nederlandse samenvatting ..................................................................................................................... 11 Abstract ................................................................................................................................................. 15 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 18 2. Theoretical framework .................................................................................................................. 21 2.1 Nature connectedness ............................................................................................................ 21 2.2 Foundations of nature connectedness .................................................................................... 22 2.2.1 Images of Nature and how they are formed .................................................................. 22 2.2.2 Children’s connectedness to nature ............................................................................... 24 2.3 Experience-based nature education ....................................................................................... 25 2.4 Environmental behaviour ...................................................................................................... 25 2.5 Conceptual framework .......................................................................................................... 26 2.6 Research questions ................................................................................................................ 27 3. Study design .................................................................................................................................. 28 3.1 Selection of schools ............................................................................................................... 28 3.1.1 Profile of schools ........................................................................................................... 29 3.2 Data collection ....................................................................................................................... 31 3.2.1 Data description ............................................................................................................. 32 3.2.2 Focus group interviews children ................................................................................... 33 3.2.3 Questionnaire children................................................................................................... 35 3.2.4 Teacher interviews......................................................................................................... 37 3.2.5 Questionnaire parents .................................................................................................... 37 3.3 Data analysis .......................................................................................................................... 37 3.4 Ethical justification ................................................................................................................ 38 4. Results ........................................................................................................................................... 39 4.1. Contextual explaining factors ................................................................................................ 39 4.1.1. Nature education at school ............................................................................................ 39 4.1.2. Nature accessibility ....................................................................................................... 42 4.1.3. Playing outside .............................................................................................................. 42 4.1.4. Time spent in nature ...................................................................................................... 42 4.1.5. Parents’ sense of importance of nature for children ...................................................... 44 4 4.1.6. Parents’ sense of responsibility ..................................................................................... 46 4.1.7. Role models ................................................................................................................... 46 4.2. Nature conceptualization ....................................................................................................... 48 4.2.1. Definitions of nature ...................................................................................................... 48 4.2.2. Human-nature relationship ............................................................................................ 49 4.2.3. Nature associations ........................................................................................................ 50 4.3. Emotional affinity towards nature ......................................................................................... 52 4.3.1. Enjoyment of nature ...................................................................................................... 53 4.3.2. Personal importance of nature ....................................................................................... 55 4.3.3. Sense of oneness ............................................................................................................ 55 4.3.4. Empathy for creatures.................................................................................................... 56 4.4. Environmental attitude .......................................................................................................... 57 4.4.1. Sense of importance of nature ....................................................................................... 57 4.4.2. Sense of Responsibility for Nature ................................................................................ 58 4.5. Nature connectedness scores ................................................................................................. 59 4.6. Explaining factors scores ....................................................................................................... 60 4.7. Explaining results .................................................................................................................. 61 4.7.1. Explaining the extremes ................................................................................................ 61 4.7.2. Explaining the more subtle differences ......................................................................... 62 4.7.3. Nature connectedness .................................................................................................... 65 5. Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 68 5.1. Reflection on results .............................................................................................................. 68 5.1.1. Children’s images of nature ........................................................................................... 68 5.1.2. Children’s nature connectedness ................................................................................... 69 5.1.3. Effects of nature education programmes ....................................................................... 70 5.2. Reflection on methodology ................................................................................................... 72 5.2.1. Questions and questioning ............................................................................................. 72 5.2.2. Visualization .................................................................................................................. 73 5.2.3. Investigator influence .................................................................................................... 74 5.2.4. Geographic locations ..................................................................................................... 74 5.2.5. Number of participants .................................................................................................. 75 5.2.6. Sampling bias ................................................................................................................ 75 5.2.7. Levels